Assessing the Hypertension Risk: A Deep Dive into Cereal Consumption and Cooking Methods—Insights from China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Population
2.2. Assessment of Hypertension
2.3. Assessment of Cereal Consumption
2.4. Assessment of Covariates
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of Participants
3.2. Cereal Consumption and Risk of Hypertension
3.3. Substitution Analysis
3.4. Subgroup and Sensitivity Analyses
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | Dietary Cereal Intake (g/2000 kcal/day) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | |
N | 2770 | 2770 | 2770 | 2770 |
Age (years) | 41.7 ± 0.3 | 40.7 ± 0.3 | 39.8 ± 0.2 | 39.9 ± 0.2 |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 22.7 ± 0.1 | 22.5 ± 0.1 | 22.3 ± 0.1 | 22.4 ± 0.1 |
Household income (CNY/yr) † | 42,041.1 ± 960.2 | 29,604.7 ± 712.1 | 24,881.6 ± 541.6 | 23,020.4 ± 510.2 |
Urbanization index | 72.7 ± 0.3 | 62.6 ± 0.4 | 56.6 ± 0.4 | 51.5 ± 0.4 |
Male (%) | 41.9 | 44.0 | 46.1 | 46.3 |
Han (%) | 90.9 | 86.6 | 86.4 | 88.6 |
Married (%) | 84.7 | 84.4 | 86.0 | 85.1 |
Greater than high school (%) | 14.8 | 6.0 | 4.6 | 3.9 |
Moderate-to-vigorous activity (%) | 29.1 | 47.2 | 59.4 | 66.4 |
Current drinker (%) | 36.4 | 32.3 | 34.5 | 31.8 |
Current smoker (%) | 27.1 | 28.0 | 29.2 | 29.8 |
Dietary intake | ||||
Energy intake (kcal/day) | 2160.4 ± 9.9 | 2151.8 ± 8.6 | 2119.1 ± 9.0 | 2005.3 ± 10.4 |
Whole grains (g/2000 kcal/day) | 3.4 ± 0.2 | 3.9 ± 0.2 | 5.3 ± 0.3 | 9.9 ± 0.8 |
Refined grains (g/2000 kcal/day) | 257.8 ± 1.6 | 338.0 ± 1.6 | 403.1 ± 2.1 | 587.1 ± 5.6 |
Fried cereals (g/2000 kcal/day) | 5.4 ± 0.2 | 6.2 ± 0.3 | 6.8 ± 0.3 | 8.0 ± 0.5 |
Stir-fried cereals (g/2000 kcal/day) | 7.4 ± 0.3 | 8.4 ± 0.3 | 10.8 ± 0.4 | 12.6 ± 0.6 |
Boiled cereals (g/2000 kcal/day) | 237.3 ± 1.1 | 316.4 ± 0.8 | 366.8 ± 0.9 | 483.8 ± 2.4 |
Baked cereals (g/2000 kcal/day) | 7.5 ± 0.4 | 8.3 ± 0.4 | 13.0 ± 0.6 | 19.0 ± 0.9 |
Sodium (mg/2000 kcal/day) | 5374.3 ± 458.4 | 5043.1 ± 375.2 | 4644.0 ± 239.5 | 4954.2 ± 413.0 |
Potassium (mg/2000 kcal/day) | 1972.9 ± 22.4 | 1799.6 ± 14.1 | 1770.1 ± 13.9 | 1736.5 ± 14.4 |
AHEI score ‡ | 42.5 ± 0.1 | 42.9 ± 0.1 | 44.5 ± 0.1 | 44.9 ± 0.1 |
Quartiles of Dietary Cereal Intake (g/2000 kcal/day) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | p-Trend | |
Total cereals | |||||
Median (g/2000 kcal/day) | 276 | 344 | 402 | 498 | |
Cases/person-years | 755/16,620 | 952/24,930 | 948/24,930 | 988/19,390 | |
Model 1 * | 1 | 1.01 (0.92–1.11) | 1.01 (0.91–1.11) | 1.12 (1.02–1.23) | 0.026 |
Model 2 † | 1 | 1.04 (0.94–1.15) | 1.07 (0.97–1.18) | 1.16 (1.05–1.29) | 0.004 |
Model 3 ‡ | 1 | 1.05 (0.95–1.15) | 1.06 (0.96–1.18) | 1.15 (1.03–1.29) | 0.015 |
Fried cereals | |||||
Median (g/2000 kcal/day) | 0 | 6 | 16 | 38 | |
Cases/person-years | 2436/55,608 | 473/12,540 | 406/9414 | 328/6270 | |
Model 1 * | 1 | 1.12 (1.01–1.23) | 1.23 (1.10–1.36) | 1.42 (1.26–1.59) | <0.001 |
Model 2 † | 1 | 1.06 (0.96–1.17) | 1.15 (1.04–1.28) | 1.25 (1.11–1.41) | <0.0001 |
Model 3 ‡ | 1 | 1.04 (0.94–1.16) | 1.11 (0.99–1.24) | 1.20 (1.06–1.36) | 0.002 |
Baked cereals | |||||
Median (g/2000 kcal/day) | 0 | 9 | 23 | 70 | |
Cases/person-years | 2391/55,349 | 447/11,627 | 430/9522 | 375/7406 | |
Model 1 * | 1 | 1.11 (1.01–1.23) | 1.43 (1.29–1.59) | 1.30 (1.17–1.45) | <0.001 |
Model 2 † | 1 | 1.07 (0.97–1.19) | 1.33 (1.20–1.47) | 1.21 (1.08–1.35) | <0.001 |
Model 3 ‡ | 1 | 1.07 (0.96–1.19) | 1.33 (1.19–1.49) | 1.20 (1.06–1.36) | <0.001 |
Boiled cereals | |||||
Median (g/2000 kcal/day) | 235 | 314 | 369 | 467 | |
Cases/person-years | 803/13,850 | 915/24,930 | 950/24,930 | 975/24,930 | |
Model 1 * | 1 | 0.88 (0.80–0.96) | 0.88 (0.80–0.97) | 0.95 (0.87–1.05) | 0.519 |
Model 2 † | 1 | 0.92 (0.83–1.01) | 0.96 (0.87–1.07) | 1.02 (0.92–1.13) | 0.452 |
Model 3 ‡ | 1 | 0.98 (0.89–1.08) | 1.04 (0.94–1.16) | 1.11 (0.99–1.25) | 0.034 |
Stir-fried cereals | |||||
Median (g/2000 kcal/day) | 0 | 7 | 16 | 40 | |
Cases/person-years | 1987/39,810 | 648/17,772 | 586/13,338 | 422/10,374 | |
Model 1 * | 1 | 0.94 (0.86–1.03) | 1.01 (0.92–1.11) | 0.93 (0.84–1.04) | 0.353 |
Model 2 † | 1 | 0.95 (0.87–1.04) | 1.04 (0.95–1.14) | 0.97 (0.87–1.08) | 0.863 |
Model 3 ‡ | 1 | 0.95 (0.87–1.04) | 1.05 (0.96–1.16) | 0.99 (0.89–1.11) | 0.733 |
Whole Grain Consumer | |||
---|---|---|---|
No | Yes | p Value | |
Total whole grains | |||
Cases/person-years | 2785/60,963 | 858/21,339 | |
Model 1 * | 1 | 0.95 (0.88–1.02) | 0.149 |
Model 2 † | 1 | 0.93 (0.86–1.00) | 0.050 |
Model 3 ‡ | 1 | 0.92 (0.85–0.99) | 0.027 |
Fried whole grains | |||
Cases/person-years | 3622/77,154 | 21/522 | |
Model 1 * | 1 | 0.87 (0.57–1.34) | 0.524 |
Model 2 † | 1 | 0.84 (0.55–1.30) | 0.436 |
Model 3 ‡ | 1 | 0.86 (0.56–1.32) | 0.476 |
Baked whole grains | |||
Cases/person-years | 3571/76,328 | 72/1232 | |
Model 1 * | 1 | 1.13 (0.89–1.42) | 0.324 |
Model 2 † | 1 | 1.04 (0.82–1.32) | 0.731 |
Model 3 ‡ | 1 | 1.03 (0.81–1.31) | 0.817 |
Boiled whole grains | |||
Cases/person-years | 3023/65,933 | 620/14,949 | |
Model 1 * | 1 | 0.98 (0.90–1.07) | 0.623 |
Model 2 † | 1 | 0.96 (0.88–1.04) | 0.310 |
Model 3 ‡ | 1 | 0.96 (0.87–1.04) | 0.314 |
Stir-fried whole grains | |||
Cases/person-years | 3423/73,017 | 220/5841 | |
Model 1 * | 1 | 0.83 (0.72–0.95) | 0.007 |
Model 2 † | 1 | 0.85 (0.74–0.98) | 0.022 |
Model 3 ‡ | 1 | 0.85 (0.74–0.98) | 0.025 |
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Huang, Y.; Ao, Y.; Wan, X.; Liu, X.; Yao, J.; Ye, H.; Wang, A.; Zhuang, P.; Jiao, J.; Zhang, Y. Assessing the Hypertension Risk: A Deep Dive into Cereal Consumption and Cooking Methods—Insights from China. Nutrients 2024, 16, 3027. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16173027
Huang Y, Ao Y, Wan X, Liu X, Yao J, Ye H, Wang A, Zhuang P, Jiao J, Zhang Y. Assessing the Hypertension Risk: A Deep Dive into Cereal Consumption and Cooking Methods—Insights from China. Nutrients. 2024; 16(17):3027. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16173027
Chicago/Turabian StyleHuang, Yingyu, Yang Ao, Xuzhi Wan, Xiaohui Liu, Jianxin Yao, Hao Ye, Anli Wang, Pan Zhuang, Jingjing Jiao, and Yu Zhang. 2024. "Assessing the Hypertension Risk: A Deep Dive into Cereal Consumption and Cooking Methods—Insights from China" Nutrients 16, no. 17: 3027. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16173027