Dietary Patterns of European Children and Their Parents in Association with Family Food Environment: Results from the I.Family Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Participants
2.2. Questionnaires and Anthropometric Measurements
2.3. Dietary Information
2.4. Dietary Data Analysis
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Dietary Clusters
3.2. Participant Characteristics
3.3. Family Food Environment
4. Discussion
Limitations and Strengths
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Appendix A.1. Derivation of z-Scores
Appendix A.2. Clustering Procedure
Parents | Children, Adolescents Sweet & Fat Ref. Cereals Animal Products | ||
---|---|---|---|
Sweet & Fat | 0.45 | 2.54 | 2.45 |
Ref. Cereals | 2.7 | 0.77 | 2.51 |
Animal Products | 2.48 | 2.25 | 0.49 |
References
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Food Group | Healthy Alternative | Unhealthy Alternative |
---|---|---|
Cereals & cereal products | Low sugar content (<15%), low fat content (<20%) and high fiber content (≥5%) | ≥15% sugar, ≥20% fat, and <5% fiber content |
Sugar & sweets | - | Sugar, sweets, candies, marzipan, chocolate, nut spreads, jam, honey, ice cream, canned/sugared fruit, etc. |
Fats & oils | From mainly plant origin, and for sauces <40% fat content | Mainly animal and processed origin and ≥40% fat for sauces |
Non-alcoholic beverages | Non-caloric and non-processed beverages such as table water, plain herbal teas, plain coffee | Sweetened and processed beverages: manufactured juices, sodas, ice tea, energy drinks, coffee/tea with milk/sugar, broth |
Meat | Containing <10% fat, and meat products with <20% fat from poultry, rabbit or game | Meat from all other origins than poultry, including offal, with ≥10% fat and meat products containing ≥20% fat |
Meat alternative | Soy products, meat and dairy substitutes from soy, vegetarian burgers, tempeh, tofu, seitan and lean prepared fish and eggs | - |
Milk & dairy products | Low fat and unsweetened | Full fat and sweetened, flavored |
Fruit & vegetables | Fresh fruit and vegetables, their fresh juices/smoothies, or lean preparation, without added sugars | - |
Mixed dishes | Based on cereals, legumes, vegetables/potatoes with small amounts of fish, egg or dairy, soups, veloutés, mixed salad | Based on meat; fried foods (also fried vegetables), fast food, snack foods (not included in the final cluster analysis) |
Children | Sweet & Fat (N = 697; 35%) | Ref. Cereals (N = 563; 28%) | Animal Products (N = 716; 36%) | |||
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | |
Energy | 0.60 a | 0.82 | 0.32 | 0.83 | −0.78 b | 0.79 |
Non-alcoholic beverages—healthy | −0.64 b | 0.89 | 0.54 a | 0.81 | −0.04 | 1.01 |
Non-alcoholic beverages—unhealthy | 0.39 a | 1.24 | −0.33 b | 0.67 | −0.12 | 0.82 |
Cereals—unhealthy | −0.37 | 0.7 | 0.96 a | 1.06 | −0.40 b | 0.61 |
Cereals—healthy | 0.34 a | 1.05 | −0.61 b | 0.64 | 0.14 | 0.97 |
Sugar & Sweets | 0.27 a | 0.94 | −0.39 b | 0.94 | 0.05 | 1.00 |
Fats & Oils—unhealthy | 0.29 a | 1.21 | −0.38 b | 0.61 | 0.02 | 0.93 |
Fats & Oils—healthy | −0.03 | 1.03 | 0.36 a | 1.18 | −0.25 b | 0.69 |
Fruit & Vegetables | −0.09 | 0.96 | −0.37 b | 0.87 | 0.39 a | 1.00 |
Meat—unhealthy | −0.35 b | 0.88 | 0.09 | 1.02 | 0.27 a | 1.00 |
Meat—healthy | −0.51 b | 0.73 | −0.01 | 0.96 | 0.51 a | 1.01 |
Milk & Dairy products—unhealthy | 0.22 a | 1.13 | −0.15 b | 0.91 | −0.1 | 0.89 |
Milk & Dairy products—healthy | 0.12 a | 1.09 | −0.22 b | 0.82 | 0.05 | 1.02 |
Meat alternative | −0.24 | 0.78 | −0.25 b | 0.71 | 0.42 a | 1.22 |
Mixed dishes—healthy | −0.41 b | 0.89 | 0.08 | 0.97 | 0.34 a | 0.98 |
Parents | Sweet & Fat (N = 728; 39%) | Ref. Cereals (N = 410; 22%) | Animal Products (N = 747; 40%) | |||
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | |
Energy | 0.75 a | 0.76 | 0.05 | 0.83 | −0.73 b | 0.75 |
Non-alcoholic beverages—healthy | −0.36 b | 1.01 | 0.15 | 0.87 | 0.23 a | 0.96 |
Non-alcoholic beverages—unhealthy | 0.17 a | 1.12 | −0.05 | 1.03 | −0.14 b | 0.82 |
Cereals—unhealthy | −0.40 b | 0.59 | 1.32 | 1.09 | −0.34 | 0.55 |
Cereals—healthy | 0.33 a | 1.02 | −0.69 b | 0.58 | 0.06 | 0.97 |
Sugar & Sweets | 0.34 a | 0.96 | −0.24 b | 0.93 | −0.20 | 0.99 |
Fats & Oils—unhealthy | 0.31 a | 1.17 | −0.41 b | 0.66 | −0.08 | 0.87 |
Fats & Oils—healthy | −0.03 | 1.04 | 0.23 a | 1.11 | −0.09 b | 0.87 |
Fruit & Vegetables | −0.08 | 0.94 | −0.32 b | 0.95 | 0.25 a | 1.02 |
Meat—unhealthy | −0.41 b | 0.87 | 0.18 | 0.91 | 0.30 a | 1.03 |
Meat—healthy | −0.56 b | 0.74 | 0.13 | 0.84 | 0.48 a | 1.03 |
Milk & Dairy products—unhealthy | 0.34 a | 1.14 | −0.42 b | 0.72 | −0.09 | 0.87 |
Milk & Dairy products—healthy | 0.03 | 1.02 | −0.18 b | 0.93 | 0.07 a | 1.00 |
Meat alternative | −0.25 | 0.77 | −0.29 b | 0.65 | 0.40 a | 1.21 |
Mixed dishes—healthy | −0.53 b | 0.91 | −0.01 | 0.84 | 0.52 a | 0.89 |
Covariates | Plausible Reporters | Misreporters | ||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Children, Adolescents | Parents | Children, Adolescents | Parents | |||||||||||||
Sweet & Fat (N = 697; 35%) | Ref. Cereals (N = 563; 28%) | Animal Products (N = 716; 36%) | Sweet & Fat (N = 728; 39%) | Ref. Cereals (N = 410; 22%) | Animal Products (N = 747; 40%) | (N = 484) | (N = 471) | |||||||||
Age mean (SD) | 10.9 (2.1) | 11.4 (2.1) | 11.2 (2.1) | 41.8 (5.4) | 44.2 (5.8) | 41.8 (5.4) | 12.2 (1.9) | 42.3 (5.7) | ||||||||
Age range (min; max) | 6.0; 15.8 | 6.0; 16.0 | 6.0; 16.0 | 28.1; 58.5 | 30.3; 65.4 | 27.0; 63.0 | 6.5; 15.7 | 27.8; 58.7 | ||||||||
Sex (N, %) | ||||||||||||||||
Male | 322 | 32 | 311 | 30 | 387 | 38 | 149 | 26 | 173 | 30 | 257 | 44 | 238 | 49 | 139 | 30 |
Female | 375 | 39 | 252 | 26 | 329 | 34 | 579 | 44 | 237 | 18 | 490 | 38 | 246 | 51 | 332 | 71 |
Weight group (N, %N) a | ||||||||||||||||
Normal weight | 588 | 37 | 403 | 25 | 613 | 38 | 428 | 43 | 175 | 18 | 388 | 39 | 310 | 64 | 159 | 34 |
Overweight | 93 | 32 | 115 | 39 | 84 | 32 | 209 | 34 | 157 | 25 | 255 | 41 | 123 | 25 | 156 | 33 |
Obese | 16 | 20 | 45 | 56 | 19 | 24 | 91 | 33 | 78 | 29 | 104 | 38 | 51 | 11 | 156 | 33 |
ISCED-Level of parents b (N, %) | ||||||||||||||||
Low Education | 5 | 12 | 31 | 76 | 5 | 12 | 1 | 3 | 24 | 71 | 9 | 26 | 26 | 5 | 31 | 7 |
Medium Education | 200 | 31 | 245 | 38 | 207 | 32 | 185 | 30 | 190 | 31 | 234 | 38 | 227 | 47 | 235 | 50 |
High Education | 482 | 39 | 271 | 22 | 491 | 39 | 529 | 44 | 182 | 15 | 488 | 41 | 226 | 47 | 199 | 42 |
Missing ISCED c | 10 | 26 | 16 | 41 | 13 | 33 | 13 | 30 | 14 | 33 | 16 | 37 | 5 | 1 | 6 | 1 |
County (N, %) | ||||||||||||||||
Italy | 8 | 3 | 232 | 85 | 32 | 12 | 14 | 6 | 179 | 77 | 38 | 16 | 59 | 12 | 77 | 16 |
Estonia | 275 | 50 | 29 | 5 | 246 | 45 | 341 | 56 | 28 | 5 | 244 | 40 | 148 | 31 | 82 | 17 |
Cyprus | 28 | 17 | 66 | 39 | 75 | 44 | 33 | 21 | 40 | 26 | 81 | 53 | 27 | 6 | 41 | 9 |
Belgium | 67 | 44 | 14 | 9 | 73 | 47 | 66 | 55 | 14 | 12 | 39 | 33 | 24 | 5 | 18 | 4 |
Sweden | 133 | 39 | 120 | 35 | 89 | 26 | 113 | 40 | 58 | 20 | 113 | 40 | 55 | 11 | 66 | 14 |
Germany | 149 | 49 | 40 | 13 | 113 | 37 | 133 | 47 | 39 | 14 | 114 | 40 | 143 | 30 | 147 | 31 |
Hungary | 29 | 32 | 38 | 42 | 23 | 26 | 11 | 12 | 41 | 45 | 39 | 43 | 17 | 4 | 25 | 5 |
Spain | 8 | 8 | 24 | 25 | 65 | 67 | 17 | 16 | 11 | 10 | 79 | 74 | 11 | 2 | 15 | 3 |
Parental Dietary Pattern | Children’s Dietary Pattern | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sweet & Fat | Ref. Cereals | Animal Products | |||||||
N | OR | 95%CI | N | OR | 95%CI | N | OR | 95%CI | |
Maternal dietary pattern (N = 1662) | |||||||||
Different & <1 shared meal (reference) | 132 | 1.00 | 265 | 1.00 | 183 | 1.00 | |||
Different & ≥1 shared meals | 771 | 0.97 | 0.59; 1.58 | 1096 | 1.20 | 0.70; 2.07 | 877 | 1.06 | 0.70; 1.60 |
Identical & <1 shared meal | 158 | 2.12 | 1.18; 3.81 | 25 | 5.70 | 1.51; 21.48 | 107 | 2.18 | 1.21; 3.92 |
Identical & ≥1 shared meals | 601 | 1.91 | 1.17; 3.13 | 276 | 2.70 | 1.34; 5.45 | 495 | 2.19 | 1.41; 3.40 |
Paternal dietary pattern (N = 789) | |||||||||
Different & <1 shared meal (reference) | 149 | 1.00 | 153 | 1.00 | 112 | 1.00 | |||
Different & ≥1 shared meals | 430 | 1.31 | 0.82; 2.09 | 396 | 0.83 | 0.45;1.54 | 338 | 0.55 | 0.32; 0.92 |
Identical & <1 shared meal | 58 | 2.30 | 1.15; 4.57 | 54 | 1.66 | 0.68;4.06 | 95 | 1.45 | 0.78; 2.71 |
Identical & ≥1 shared meals | 152 | 3.18 | 1.84; 5.47 | 186 | 1.99 | 0.98;4.08 | 244 | 1.54 | 0.91; 2.59 |
Parental Dietary Pattern | Children’s Dietary Pattern | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sweet & Fat | Ref. Cereals | Animal Products | |||||||
N | OR | 95%CI | N | OR | 95%CI | N | OR | 95%CI | |
Maternal dietary pattern (N = 1607) | |||||||||
Different & soft drink not available (reference) | 742 | 1.00 | 1017 | 1.00 | 767 | 1.00 | |||
Different & soft drink is available | 138 | 1.97 | 1.20; 3.25 | 294 | 0.46 | 0.25; 0.84 | 256 | 0.95 | 0.65; 1.38 |
Identical & soft drink not available | 521 | 2.04 | 1.49; 2.80 | 246 | 2.48 | 1.43; 4.27 | 496 | 2.16 | 1.59; 2.92 |
Identical & soft drink is available | 206 | 2.78 | 1.80; 4.28 | 50 | 1.67 | 0.66; 4.22 | 88 | 1.42 | 0.82; 2.47 |
Paternal dietary pattern (N = 763) | |||||||||
Different & soft drink not available (reference) | 465 | 1.00 | 407 | 1.00 | 360 | 1.00 | |||
Different & soft drink is available | 92 | 1.55 | 0.90; 2.68 | 122 | 0.43 | 0.18; 1.04 | 80 | 0.83 | 0.45; 1.52 |
Identical & soft drink not available | 151 | 2.48 | 1.58; 3.87 | 209 | 2.05 | 1.22; 3.45 | 256 | 2.48 | 1.62; 3.79 |
Identical & soft drink is available | 55 | 4.26 | 2.16; 8.41 | 25 | 1.97 | 0.61; 6.39 | 67 | 1.80 | 0.96; 3.36 |
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Hebestreit, A.; Intemann, T.; Siani, A.; De Henauw, S.; Eiben, G.; Kourides, Y.A.; Kovacs, E.; Moreno, L.A.; Veidebaum, T.; Krogh, V.; et al. Dietary Patterns of European Children and Their Parents in Association with Family Food Environment: Results from the I.Family Study. Nutrients 2017, 9, 126. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9020126
Hebestreit A, Intemann T, Siani A, De Henauw S, Eiben G, Kourides YA, Kovacs E, Moreno LA, Veidebaum T, Krogh V, et al. Dietary Patterns of European Children and Their Parents in Association with Family Food Environment: Results from the I.Family Study. Nutrients. 2017; 9(2):126. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9020126
Chicago/Turabian StyleHebestreit, Antje, Timm Intemann, Alfonso Siani, Stefaan De Henauw, Gabriele Eiben, Yiannis A. Kourides, Eva Kovacs, Luis A. Moreno, Toomas Veidebaum, Vittorio Krogh, and et al. 2017. "Dietary Patterns of European Children and Their Parents in Association with Family Food Environment: Results from the I.Family Study" Nutrients 9, no. 2: 126. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9020126
APA StyleHebestreit, A., Intemann, T., Siani, A., De Henauw, S., Eiben, G., Kourides, Y. A., Kovacs, E., Moreno, L. A., Veidebaum, T., Krogh, V., Pala, V., Bogl, L. H., Hunsberger, M., Börnhorst, C., & Pigeot, I. (2017). Dietary Patterns of European Children and Their Parents in Association with Family Food Environment: Results from the I.Family Study. Nutrients, 9(2), 126. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9020126