Biochemical Mechanisms Associating Alcohol Use Disorders with Cancers
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. The Route of Alcohol through the Gastrointestinal Tract in Humans
3. Ethanol Induces Metabolic Alterations That May Cause or Facilitate Cancer Development
3.1. Oxidative and Nonoxidative Metabolism of Ethanol
3.2. Imbalanced Proportion [Free NAD+]/[Free NADH]
3.3. Ethanol and Metabolism of C1-Units
3.4. Ethanol and Oxidative Stress
3.5. Gene Variants
3.6. Ethanol and Cancer Development
4. Damage of DNA and Proteins and Epigenetic Shifts
5. Alcohol, Cancer Stem Cells Theories, and Therapeutic Strategies
6. Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Enzyme | SNVs * | Gene Variants and Cancer Risk References |
---|---|---|
ADH, EC 1.1.1.1 | rs1229984, rs2066702, rs698, rs1693482 | [25,50,175,176,177,180,189,198,199,200] |
ALDH, EC 1.2.1.3 | rs671 | [50,175,177,180,188,191,198,200,201,202,203,204] |
CYP2E11, EC 1.14.14.1 | rs2031920, rs6413432 | [55,176,193,205] |
HSD17B13, EC 1.1.1.51 | rs 4607179 | [206] |
SOD, EC 1.15.1.1 | rs4998557, rs4880 | [207,208,209] |
PNPLA3, EC 2.3.1.51 | rs738409 | [69,206,210,211,212,213] |
MTHFR, EC 1.5.1.20 | rs 2184227, rs868014 | [174,179,214] |
MS, EC 2.1.1.13 | rs1805087 | [215] |
MTRR, EC 1.16.1.8 | rs162036, rs1532268 | [213,215] |
TM6SF2 | rs58542926 | [213] |
Target | Mechanism | Effect | References |
---|---|---|---|
ADH | Increased demand by substrate presence | [NAD+]/[NADH] imbalance | [48,49,50] |
ALDH | Increased demand by substrate presence | [NAD+]/[NADH] imbalance | [60] |
Catalase | Increased demand by substrate presence | ROS production | [51,201] |
CYP2E | Increased demand by substrate presence | ROS production | [53] |
Fatty acid ethyl ester (FAEE) synthase and carboxyl ester lipase (CEL) | Increased demand by substrate presence | Accumulation of fatty acid ethyl esters (biomarkers of alcohol consumption). It alters AMP kinase (AMPKα) activity | [41,46,89,93] |
Sulfotransferase (ST) | Increased demand by substrate presence | Accumulation of ethyl sulfate (a biomarker of alcohol consumption) | [95] |
UGT | Increased demand by substrate presence | Ethyl glucuronide (a biomarker of alcohol consumption) accumulates; it activates Toll-like receptor proteins | [38,94] |
PLD | Increased demand by substrate presence | Phosphatidylethanol (a biomarker of alcohol consumption) accumulates; it produces changes in membranes and alters the phosphatidic acid synthesis | [33,36] |
PARP (poly (ADP-ribose) polymerases] | [NAD+]/[NADH] imbalance | Defects in DNA repair | [106] |
Sirtuins | [NAD+]/[NADH] imbalance | Loss of histone deacetylation | [105] |
AMPK | [NAD+]/[NADH] imbalance | Alteration in energy equilibrium and anabolic metabolism, cell growth, proliferation, autophagy, and DNA repair | [107] |
MS | Inhibition by acetaldehyde | Downregulation of the conversion of methyltetrahydrofolate to tetrahydrofolate and synthesis of methionine | [268] |
NADPH oxidase and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) | Activation by acetaldehyde | ROS formation | [152,153] |
Superoxide dismutase (SOD) | Downregulation/upregulation by ethanol and acetaldehyde | Imbalance of ROS | [160,161] |
Lipids, proteins, and DNA | Formation of adducts with acetaldehyde, ROS, and HNE | Lipid peroxidation, dysregulation of protein function, and disruption of gene expression | [62,80,82,83,149,229,231] |
Actors | Mechanisms | Effects | References |
---|---|---|---|
Long-term alcohol treatment | Upregulated expression of malignant genes (e.g., TP63, KRT15, SAMD9, STEAP4, ITGB6) | Oncogenic transformation and appearance of breast cancer | [269] |
ROS imbalance | Biomembranes, DNA, and protein damage | Affects differentiation/self-renewal of different types of stem cells | [268,271,272] |
Ethanol and acetaldehyde | Alteration in epigenetic mechanisms (DNA methylation, histone modifications, and noncoding RNAs) | Dysregulation of self-renewal and differentiation pathways in embryonic and adult stem cells | [275,276,277,285,286] |
Ethanol and its metabolites | Changes in stem cell niche’s microenvironment, modification of membrane fluidity, and derangement of the extracellular matrix composition and organization | Block of cell differentiation, DNA damage, and promotion of apoptosis | [268] |
Acute and chronic treatments | Activation of intestinal stem cell divisions and dysregulation of β-catenin signaling | More frequent divisions cause mutations and malignant cell transformation | [284] |
ROS and acetaldehyde (mitochondrial oxidative overload) | Alteration of hepatic progenitor cells formation and differentiation | Development of steatosis and hepatocarcinoma | [287,288,289] |
ROS imbalance | Modification of CSC microenvironment and control of ErbB2 expression | Increased number of CSCs, augmented cell survival and potentiated malignity, and tumor propagation | [268,306,307,337] |
ROS imbalance | Activation of the p38 MAPK/β-catenin pathways | Promotion of stem and progenitor cell expansion | [309] |
High alcohol exposure | Direct cytotoxic effect or through acetaldehyde-induced mutations | Development of tumors of the oropharynx and gastrointestinal tract (mechanisms not well understood) | [320] |
Chronic alcohol drinking | Promotes transformation (alteration of stemness markers) | Human pancreatic ductal epithelial cells transform into cancer stem-like cells | [338] |
Target | Tumor (s) | Therapeutics Design | References |
---|---|---|---|
Acetaldehyde and ROS formation. Mouth and gut microbiomes. | The gastrointestinal tract, oropharynx, lung, liver, and other tissues. | Reduction in acetaldehyde and acetaldehyde reactivity and regulation of glutathione concentrations. Antioxidant strategies to quench free radicals and modulation of antioxidant enzymes: catalase, glutathione S-transferase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase. Control of microbiome. | [13,339,340,341,342,343] |
The hub of one-carbon metabolism. | Colorectal and other tissues. | Increased plasma concentrations of betaine and methionine. | [344] |
Regulation of NAD synthesis. | Stomach, skin, and other tissues. | Diet supplement of nicotinamide riboside and nicotinic acid riboside and enzymatic regulation of nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT) and nicotinamide mononucleotide adenylyltransferase (NMNAT). | [345,346,347] |
PARP/Sirtuins. | Liver, breast. | Development of specific PARP inhibitors. | [106,348,349] |
NUMB protein. | Breast, liver. | Targeting phosphorylation at specific amino acid residues. | [316] |
Wnt/β-catenin/glycogen synthase kinase 3-β signaling pathway. | Liver | Inhibition of β-catenin with siRNA. | [319] |
EGFR and ErbB2. | Breast. | Targeting phosphorylation. | [337] |
TLR4/Nanog signaling. | Liver. | Control of oxidative phosphorylation and fatty acid oxidation. | [316] |
Long-noncoding RNAs. | Liver, esophagus, ovary. | Control of expression of long noncoding RNAs. | [316] |
microRNAs. | Liver. | Drugs aimed at blocking microRNAs involved in liver fibrosis (for example, microRNA-378 and miR-34c). | [336,350] |
Critical proteins in CSC: Notch, Wnt, Hippo, Hedgehog, PIK3/Akt/mTOR. | Several tissues. | Immuno-control and -regulation of activity through reversible and irreversible covalent changes of signaling routes and transcription factors responsible for uncontrolled stem role. | [265,268,274,283,291,298,299,300,301,302,310,312,327,329,331,332,333,334,337] |
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Rodriguez, F.D.; Coveñas, R. Biochemical Mechanisms Associating Alcohol Use Disorders with Cancers. Cancers 2021, 13, 3548. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers13143548
Rodriguez FD, Coveñas R. Biochemical Mechanisms Associating Alcohol Use Disorders with Cancers. Cancers. 2021; 13(14):3548. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers13143548
Chicago/Turabian StyleRodriguez, Francisco D., and Rafael Coveñas. 2021. "Biochemical Mechanisms Associating Alcohol Use Disorders with Cancers" Cancers 13, no. 14: 3548. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers13143548
APA StyleRodriguez, F. D., & Coveñas, R. (2021). Biochemical Mechanisms Associating Alcohol Use Disorders with Cancers. Cancers, 13(14), 3548. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers13143548