Immunreconstitution and Infectious Complications After Rituximab Treatment in Children and Adolescents: What Do We Know and What Can We Learn from Adults?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Immunreconstitution after Rituximab Treatment in Children and Adolescents
1.2. Immune Response and Vaccination Titres after Rituximab Treatment
Diagnosis and Numbers | B-cell Reconstitution | Ig Level, Vaccination | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
chronic or refractory hematologic autoimmune cytopenias, rituximab 4 doses 375 mg/m2, non-responder after 3 doses: escalation to 3 × 750 mg/m², total 29 pts with 9 pts with dose escalation | B-cell recovery was noticed after 6 months. B cells were normalized after 1 year. Recovery was similar in pts that received 4 or 6 doses of rituxmab | IgM, IgA, IgG decreased but remained near normal range | [15] |
autoimmune haemolytic anaemia, rituxmab 4 weekly doses 375 mg/m², 6 pts. 2 pts received 8 additional infusions | B cells did not reappear in blood 5–9 months after last infusion. Normal counts were then reached within the following months “A reduction to one or two injections, which would limit the duration of B-cell deficiency would be worth assessing” | Ig concentrations in serum fell below normal values for age. 5 pts were substituted 9–10 months after last ritux mab infusion | [16] |
autoimmune hemolytic anemia (n = 9) and Evans syndrome (n = 6), ritux 375 mg/m² weekly with 2 doses (n = 3), 3 doses (n = 10), 4 doses (n = 2), 15 pts | B-cell undetectable after treatment in all pts. Normal B-cell count after 6 mo in 10/15 (67%) of pts | [51] | |
nephrotic syndrome, single dose ritux 375 mg/m², 12 pts | Median time to B-cell recovery 119 days | Serum IgM levels gradually decreased | [52] |
nephrotic syndrome, rituxmab 375 mg/m² weekly in 4 doses (n = 15), 3 doses (n = 2), 2 doses (n = 4) or 1 dose (n = 1), re-treatment single dose (n = 19), 22 pts | Duration of complete B-cell depletion 3 to 15 mths (mean 8 mths). Similar duration of B-cell depletion in pts with 1–2 doses and in pts with 3–4 doses of rituxmab | [53] | |
acute rejection after renal transplantation, 4 doses 375 mg/m² weekly, 20 randomized pts | Correlation of age and B-cell recovery: children < 10years of age repopulated significantly faster than children > 10years of age (5 vs. 14 months) | IgM levels trended lower in rituximab group compared to control. Correlation between lowering of serum IgM, young age and B-cell repopulation > 10 months | [17] |
severe chronic ITP, rituxmab 375 mg/m² weekly for 4 doses, 36 pts | B cell depletion in all pts, remaining unchanged at 2% between week 6 and week 12 | No significant HG: mean IgG falling only 0.7%/week but significant decrease of mean IgM levels. “it would appear that IVIG replacement therapy is unnecessary.” | [19] |
Chronic ITP, rituxmab 375 mg/m² weekly for 4 doses, 24 pts | decreased IgG in 4 pts, decreased IgM in 5 pts | [54] | |
Chronic ITP, rituxmab 375 mg/m² weekly for 4 doses, single pt | low CD19-positive cells (<400 × 109/L) | after begin of rituximab, IgG, IgM and IgA level were decreased for 3 years, with only increased IgG thereafter | [55] |
SLE, rituxmab 750 mg/m² 1 dose (19 pts had 2 -6 doses), 63 pts | After a mean of 2.5 months, IgG, IgA and IgM levels were reduced, but only 2% with Ig replacement | [56] | |
autoimmune and inflammatory CNS disease, 144 pts, rituximab 375 mg/m2 1–10 doses, the most common regimen weekly for 4 weeks (n = 57) | B-cell depletion in 119/24 (96%), >12mo in 12/124 (10%) | Hypogammaglobulinemia in 27/124 (22%) | [57] |
1.3. Immunereconstitution in Adult B-NHL Patients Treated with Rituximab and Chemotherapy: Lessons for the Pediatricians
2. Infectious Complications after Rituximab Treatment
Diagnosis and Numbers | B-cell Reconstitution | Ig Level, Comments | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
relapsed FL, 4 doses ritux 375 mg/m² (n = 7), de novo FL 4 doses (n = 4) | B-cell reconstitution (>5 cells/µL) 6–9 months, recovery to pre-treatment levels by 12 months | delayed recovery of CD27+ memory B-cell pool; emerging B cells after rituxmab are functionally immature | [69] |
FL and MCL, 4 weekly doses of rituximab mono 375 mg/m² (arm A) | 1 year after start median B-cell level 81% of baseline (n = 22) | IgG and IgM remained stable. IgM 100% recovered after 1 year (n = 30) | [61] |
4 weekly doses and 4 more doses at 2-month intervals (arm B) | 1 year after start median B-cell level 50% of baseline, 6 months longer to recover to baseline (n = 35) | IgG remained stable. IgM decreased to 73% of baseline after 1 year (n = 50) (p 0.007) | |
relapsed FL, 4 weekly doses 375 mg/m² of rituximab mono (n = 166) | recovery of B cells started between 6 and 9 months; recovery to normal between 9 and 12 months | Mean serum IgA and IgG levels remained within normal. IgM recovered to normal at 8 mths | [58] |
B-NHL (n = 66), 6× CHOP + rituxmab 375 mg/m² prior each cycle + 2 doses within 1 month (total 8 doses rituximab) | After 1 cycle R-CHOP CD19+ and CD20+ completely eliminated. One year after therapy B-cell levels same as at diagnosis and were almost double the level at diagnosis 2 years after therapy | After 6 cycles: IgG 68%, IgA 63%, IgM 56%. All Ig recovered gradually until 2 years after therapy IgG 94%, IgA 90%, IgM 76%. | [63] |
FL or low grade Lymphoma, 8 doses rituximab 375 mg/m2 weekly, 37 pts | B-cell with counts returning to the lower limit of normal recovery 6–9 months after rituximab | Mean serum IgG, IgA and IgM levels within normal range. Decrease > 50% from baseline in IgG, IgM or IgA was observed in two, one and four pts, respectively. Within 1 year, levels recovered in all but one pt (low IgG) | [60] |
review of different diagnoses | reconstitution of B lymphocytes usually takes several months; return to pre-treatment value after about one year | Reduction of serum Ig levels; unclear whether clinically significant | [70] |
B-cell lymphoma (n = 211), median of 7× rituximab (monotherapy or combined with chemotherapy) | 39% of patient with initially normal IgG levels presented with hypogammaglobulinemia (mild for 77% of pt). | [59] | |
Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (n = 122) treated with CHOP (n = 24) or rituximab-CHOP (n = 98); 16 pts were excluded due to abnormal Ig levels before treatment; 6 cycles of treatment | No obvious changes of IgG, IgA and IgM in the CHOP group. Decreased levels of IgG, IgA and IgM by 20% of baseline in 85%, 85% and 88% respectively. IgG, IgA and IgM < low limit of normal value were observed in 48%, 49% and 52% of pts, respectively. | [68] | |
B-cell NHL (n = 66). Standart treatment included R-CHOP, CHOP and CVP. Exact number of rituximab infusions is not indicated | Levels for IgA, Igg and IgM were decreased after treatment compared to pretreament levels. No occurrence of higher infection rates | [71] |
2.1. Infectious Complications after Rituximab Treatment in Children and Adolescents
2.2. Relevant Infectious Complications Reported in Adult Patients after Rituximab Treatment
Indication | No. Pts | Age Years | Dosing | Toxicity | Serious Adverse Events | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
nephrotic syndrome | 12 | <20 | 1 × 375 | mild reactions (n = 5) 42%; fever and hypotension (n = 1), tachycardia (n = 1), hypertension (n = 1), facial flushing(n = 1), mild respiratory distress (n = 1) | no SAE during the patients clinical courses | [52] |
nephrotic syndrome | 22 | 375, 4× (n = 15), 3× (n = 2), 2× (n = 4), 1× (n = 1), re-treatment 1× (n = 19) | dizziness, polypnea with dyspnea and tachycardia (n = 2), neutropenia (n = 19), peripheral vein thrombosis (n = 1), transient hepatic cytolysis (n = 1), transient thrombocytopenia (n = 1), gastroenteritis (n = 1), fever (n = 1) | no major side effects were observed | [53] | |
acute rejection after renal transplant, randomized | 20 | 2–23 | 4 × 375 | mild hypotension and shortness of breath at the first dose only (n = 2) | no SAE | [17] |
severe chronic ITP (n = 30) or Evans Syndrom (n = 6) | 36 | 375, 4× (n = 33), <4× (n = 3) | not all 4 doses (n = 3) due to serum sickness (n = 2), infusion related hypotension (n = 1) | [19] | ||
autoimm. hemolytic anemia (n = 9), Evans syndrom (n = 6) | 15 | 0.3–14 | 375, 2× (n = 3), 3× (n = 10), 4× (n = 2) | infusion-related side effects: fever (n = 2) upper airway edema (n = 1) | primary varicella zoster virus infection two months after rituximab | [51] |
Chronic or refractory hematologic autoimm. cytopenia | 29 | <21 | 4 × 375, non-responder after 3×, escalation to 3 × 750 (n = 9) | Mild infusion reactions including respiratory symptoms, fever, myalgia. No delayed infusion reactions, no early or delayed infectious complications | one patient (3%) did not tolerate the drug | [15] |
autoimm. haemolytic anaemia | 6 | 0.6–2.9 | 375, 4× (n = 4), 12× (n = 12) | E. coli pyelonephriitis (n = 1), febrile bronchitis (n = 1) | no infusion-related side effects, low incidence of infections | [16] |
Diamond-Blackfan anemia | 1 | 8 | 375, 2× weekly | no immediate serious side effect was observed | [84] | |
autoimmune and inflammatory CNS disease | 144 | <18 | 375 mg/m2, 1–10 doses | Infectious any 11 (7.6%): 40: 2 (1.4%) CMV retinitis; shock and hypoxic brain injury, 30: 7 (5%): pneumonia (n = 2), empyema, bronchiectasis, salmonella enteritis, C. difficile enteritis, mastoiditis (all n = 1) | Infectious, 50: 2 (1.4), CMV colitis (complicated by fatal bowel perforation); staphylococcus toxic shock syndrome | [57] |
Infection and Complication | Evidence and Diagnosis | Treatment Including Rituximab | Comments and/or Results | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
lympho-cytopenia without increased rates of infections | prospective randomized study in relapsed FL and MCL (n = 147) | fludarabine, cyclophosphamide, mitoxantrone with or without rituximab | lymphocytopenia grade III/IV more frequent with R-FCM (51%) compared to FCM (39%; p 0.006) without clinical relevance, i.e., no increased risk of infectious complications; WHO grade III/IV infections of 1.5% were not different between the two arms | [85] |
overall infections and neutropenia including long term follow-up | randomized trial untreated DLBCL (n = 399) | CHOP (n = 197) versus R-CHOP (n = 202) | similar incidence of 65% for infectious events for all grades, grade III/IV infections were 12% for R-CHOP versus 20% for CHOP; neutropenia was not associated with an increase in episodes of infection, number of patients with infections in 5 year follow-up with trend of increase (12 R-CHOP versus 6 CHOP) | [86] |
overall rates of infections | DLBCL randomized trial (n = 824) | CHOP (n = 411) versus R-CHOP (n = 413) | Similar rates of infections for R-CHOP (30%) versus CHOP (31%) | [87] |
overall rates of infections | DLBCL randomized trial | CHOP (n = 314) vs. R-CHOP (n = 318) | Similar rates of grade III/IV infections for R-CHOP versus CHOP (17% vs. 16%) and neutropenia (78% vs. 78%) | [88] |
overall rates of infections including fever of unknown origin and hemato-logical toxicities | FL, randomized trial (n = 428) | CHOP (n = 205) vs. R-CHOP (n = 223) | Similar rates of grade III/IV infections for R-CHOP vs. CHOP (5% vs. 7%) despite higher frequency of granulocytopenia grade III/IV with R-CHOP vs. CHOP (63% vs. 53%)similar numbers of infection-related deaths with both treatment arms | [89] |
WHO grade infections | MCL, randomized trial (n = 122) | CHOP (n = 60) vs. R-CHOP (n = 62) | Similar grade III/IV infectious complications comparing R-CHOP with CHOP (5% vs. 6%) | [90] |
hematological and non-hematological toxicity | MCL; phase III randomized study (n = 156) | fludarabine and cyclophosphamide with (n = 78) or without rituximab (n = 78) | toxicity data (n = 139): non-hemotological toxicity similar; more hematological events III/IV with 58% (FCR) leukopenia compared to 41% (FC) leukopenia (p 0.024); this did not translate into increased rates of febrile episodes or infections | [91] |
Infection and Complication | Evidence and Diagnosis | Treatment Including Rituximab | Comments and/or Results | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
PML | MCL (n = 2) splenic MZL (n = 1) | Rituximab combine d with hyperCVAD and DHAP (n = 1), CVP (n = 1) or CHOP (n = 1) | 3 case reports of PML in HIV negative patients | [92] |
PML | NHL (n = 976) | rituximab (n = 517), no rituximab (n = 459) | Retrospective cohort study in HIV negative patients | [93] |
PML | FL (n = 1), ALL (n = 1), DLBCL (n = 1) | Case 1: CHOP, R-DHAP and ASCT, Case 2: Rituximab, R-P-VABEC, CIP, Case 3: Hyper-CVAD + imatinib, HSCT rituximab | 3 case reports of PML in HIV negative patients | [94] |
PML | B-cell lympho-proliferative disorders (n = 52); autoimmune disorders (n = 5) | rituximab combined with HSCT (n = 7), purine analogs (n = 26), alkylating agents (n = 39) | clinical characteristics of 52 HIV negative patients with PML, median time from last rituximab dose to PML diagnosis was 5.5 months, overall incidence of fatality 90% | [13] |
PML and CMV | mediastinal thymic B-NHL, DLBCL, MZ | HSCT and rituximab | PML (n = 2); CMV retinitis (n = 1); CMV pneumonitis (n = 1) | [95] |
PML | DLBCL | R-CHOP | Case report of PML | [96] |
PML | electronic medical records from the Veteran’s Administration, 2003–2011, 57,041 non-HIV NHL pts | rituximab, cyclophosphamide, hydroxydaunorubicin vincrisitne | PML: 14/57,041 (0.025%): 7/8895 (7.8 per 10,000) NHL patients who received rituximab 7/48,146 (1.5 per 10,000) NHL patients who did not receive rituximab | [97] |
3. Summary, Conclusions and Perspectives
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Disclaimer
References
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Worch, J.; Makarova, O.; Burkhardt, B. Immunreconstitution and Infectious Complications After Rituximab Treatment in Children and Adolescents: What Do We Know and What Can We Learn from Adults? Cancers 2015, 7, 305-328. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers7010305
Worch J, Makarova O, Burkhardt B. Immunreconstitution and Infectious Complications After Rituximab Treatment in Children and Adolescents: What Do We Know and What Can We Learn from Adults? Cancers. 2015; 7(1):305-328. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers7010305
Chicago/Turabian StyleWorch, Jennifer, Olga Makarova, and Birgit Burkhardt. 2015. "Immunreconstitution and Infectious Complications After Rituximab Treatment in Children and Adolescents: What Do We Know and What Can We Learn from Adults?" Cancers 7, no. 1: 305-328. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers7010305