Employing Blockchain, NFTs, and Digital Certificates for Unparalleled Authenticity and Data Protection in Source Code: A Systematic Review

Abstract

In higher education, especially in programming-intensive fields like computer science, safeguarding students’ source code is crucial to prevent theft that could impact learning and future careers. Traditional storage solutions like Google Drive are vulnerable to hacking and alterations, highlighting the need for stronger protection. This work explores digital technologies that enhance source code security, with a focus on Blockchain and NFTs. Due to Blockchain’s decentralized and immutable nature, NFTs can be used to control code ownership, improving security, traceability, and preventing unauthorized access. This approach effectively addresses existing gaps in protecting academic intellectual property. However, as Bennett et al. highlight, while these technologies have significant potential, challenges remain in large-scale implementation and user acceptance. Despite these hurdles, integrating Blockchain and NFTs presents a promising opportunity to enhance academic integrity. Successful adoption in educational settings may require a more inclusive and innovative strategy.

1. Introduction

In an era marked by rapid technological advancements and increasing concerns over intellectual property rights, protecting digital assets has become a critical challenge. For students in Computer Science and Software Engineering (CSSE), ensuring the integrity and ownership of their source code is essential, as it represents not only their academic effort but also potential intellectual property. Despite existing submission protocols and security measures, issues related to originality, authorship, and unauthorized use of student-developed code remain prevalent.

This paper explores how Blockchain and Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) can enhance the security and traceability of student projects. Specifically, it examines the submission and evaluation processes in universities, with a particular focus on the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Additionally, it discusses the importance of source code protection through licensing and copyright regulations across different regions, including Europe, Asia, and Colombia.

Furthermore, this study delves into the role of digital assets, Blockchain, and NFTs in safeguarding intellectual property within academic environments. These emerging technologies provide innovative solutions to long-standing concerns regarding ownership verification and tamper-proof record-keeping. By integrating these decentralized technologies, universities can strengthen the security of student projects while fostering a more transparent and reliable academic ecosystem.

The implementation of blockchain, NFTs, and digital certificates for securing intellectual property, particularly academic source code, presents several advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages:

• Immutability and Security: Blockchain ensures that once a transaction is recorded, it cannot be altered, providing strong protection against plagiarism or unauthorized modifications.
• Decentralization: Eliminates the reliance on a single authority, reducing the risk of data manipulation or institutional biases in ownership claims.
• Transparent Ownership Records: NFTs allow for the creation of unique digital signatures, providing indisputable proof of authorship and ownership.
• Automated Smart Contracts: These enable streamlined licensing agreements and automatic enforcement of intellectual property rights without intermediaries.

Disadvantages:

• High Energy Consumption: Many blockchain networks require substantial computational power, raising concerns about sustainability and efficiency.
• Regulatory Uncertainty: The legal framework for blockchain-based intellectual property protection is still evolving, with varying acceptance across jurisdictions.
• Complexity and Cost: Implementing blockchain and NFTs requires technical expertise and may involve high transaction fees, making it less accessible for smaller institutions or individual students.
• Irreversible Transactions: While immutability is a strength, errors in ownership attribution or smart contracts can be difficult to correct.

By analyzing these advantages and disadvantages, it becomes evident that while blockchain and NFTs offer unprecedented security and authenticity, their adoption in academia requires careful consideration of legal and technical factors.

• Code submission processes:

This is more so in the systems and computer engineering career, whereby final exercises like software and system development are perceived as the last milestones in the training process [1]. In such projects, a student will post his/her source code, and the posted material will be analyzed based on both how well it works, as well as other program guidelines. In most universities, code is shared on other internal digital platforms such as OneDrive and Google Drive. They include replication, such as in Git repositories or Learning Management Systems (LMS) such as Moodle^®, which offer security and guarantee the integrity of the content. Still, the issue of source code protection remains critical, with concerns about possible manipulation or theft of work before final evaluation [2]. It should be considered that this aspect is critical, as changes to the code pose a risk of compromising the academic integrity of the project and the student, as well as the reputation of the academic institution [3].

b.

Thesaurus in Systems Engineering:

MIT has created fine-grained and specific thesauri that are aimed at improving the reusability of technical terms in systems engineering. For example, one of the major resources of MIT is the Thesaurus of Engineering Terminology (TET), containing a defined and extensively approved set of Global Standards in systems engineering. Dialogues created by this thesaurus are used in software development tools, thus ensuring conformity and compliance in the language used in projects [4].

Moreover, Stanford, Harvard, and other universities have adopted and have further developed their own technical thesauri. These thesauri contain not only the words and phrases potentially used when searching for information, but also the precise definitions of the concepts being searched, and their interrelations, which makes search results understandable for researchers and students who employ commonly accepted terms and definitions. Such actions help in improving the quality of communication within such a project, as well as safeguarding the intellectual property of students [5].

All in all, regarding the thesauri and policies used in the institution, these are meant for a fair and transparent evaluation process, as well as correct attribution of authorship and retention of academic knowledge [6].

c.

Definition of Source Code:

Source code is defined as a sequential collection of coded statements written in a programming language that is intelligible to the programmer and is in a form that can be compiled/interpreted and run on the machine [7]. As a matter of fact, at MIT, the source code is important in any software project as it embodies the thinking and the answers that a programmer uses to achieve solutions. Thus, it becomes critical to protect this fundamental foundation for the creation of all the applications and systems and to preserve the author’s intellectual integrity [8].

d.

Definition and Copyright of Source Code

Source code is a structured collection of coded statements written in a programming language that can be compiled or interpreted to execute on a machine [9]. At MIT, source code is considered a fundamental component of software projects, encapsulating the problem-solving approaches and intellectual contributions of the developer. Therefore, protecting source code is essential to preserving academic integrity and the intellectual rights of its authors [10].

Legal protections for source code vary significantly across jurisdictions. In Europe, the Directive 2009/24/EC classifies source code as a literary work, granting authors exclusive rights to use and distribute their code. Similarly, Japan and South Korea have adopted legal frameworks to safeguard software copyrights, albeit with regional differences in implementation [11]. In Colombia, the National Copyright Office recognizes source code as a form of software work, granting its author economic and moral rights [12]. To combat piracy and unauthorized use, various measures have been implemented, including open licenses that specify usage conditions and digital protection technologies that restrict unauthorized access [13].

e.

Digital Assets and Blockchain for Academic Protection

Digital assets encompass a broad range of resources in digital form, including documents, multimedia files, cryptocurrencies, and NFTs [14]. Protecting these assets is critical in an environment where data can be easily stolen or manipulated. Security measures such as encryption, private keys, and multi-factor authentication are commonly used to safeguard digital resources [15].

Blockchain technology has emerged as a robust solution for ensuring the integrity of digital assets by providing a decentralized and tamper-proof ledger [16]. Unlike traditional databases, blockchain operates through Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT), which disperses records across multiple nodes, eliminating a single point of control and reducing the risk of unauthorized alterations [17]. The cryptographic nature of blockchain ensures that each record remains immutable and secure, making it a viable option for intellectual property management in academia [18].

f.

NFTs as a Mechanism for Intellectual Property Protection

Non-fungible tokens are unique digital assets stored on a blockchain, capable of representing a variety of intellectual properties, including academic source code [19]. By tokenizing student projects as NFTs, institutions can generate a unique and verifiable digital signature that certifies the authenticity and ownership of each work [20]. This approach not only enhances security but also provides an immutable record of authorship. Additionally, the implementation of multi-chain blockchain technology could improve interoperability between different blockchain networks, offering more flexible and scalable solutions for managing NFTs in academic settings [21,22].

1.1. Discussion of Challenges and Limitations in the Study

While leveraging the tamper-proof provenance offered by Blockchain and NFTs for student source code verification holds immense promise, this study acknowledges several hurdles that must be addressed for widespread adoption [23]. These challenges include technical integration, scalability, performance, user adoption, security concerns, and regulatory compliance, all of which impact the feasibility of large-scale implementation in academic settings.

• Technical Integration: The integration of Blockchain-based solutions with existing university IT infrastructures presents a significant challenge. Academic institutions rely on legacy systems that may not be fully compatible with newer blockchain-based applications, requiring a migration strategy that minimizes workflow disruptions. Furthermore, interoperability between different blockchain protocols and existing digital credentialing platforms must be ensured to facilitate seamless adoption. Recent studies suggest that hybrid architectures combining on-chain and off-chain storage can help address compatibility issues and improve performance in academic environments [24].
• Scalability and Performance: Blockchain networks face significant scalability limitations due to increasing transaction loads, particularly in environments with high volumes of student submissions and academic records. As the number of users and projects grows, transaction throughput and processing times may become bottlenecks, leading to inefficiencies [25]. Several approaches, such as sharing, off-chain computation (e.g., Layer 2 solutions), and Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs), have been proposed to enhance blockchain scalability in educational applications. Now, emerging technologies like rollups and sidechains also offer potential improvements by offloading computational tasks while maintaining security guarantees.
  As the number of users and projects increases, the scalability of the blockchain network is affected. The latency and processing issues can compromise system efficiency. Solutions such as sharding and off-chain computation have been proposed to mitigate these issues. Recent studies have shown that optimizing resource allocation in Internet of Things (IoT) networks through deep reinforcement learning techniques, such as the Deep Reinforcement Learning-based resource allocation approach, can significantly reduce latency and improve overall system performance [26]. This approach has been validated in wireless networks considering the network slicing paradigm, achieving minimization of information update times, and optimizing resource efficiency in decentralized networks.
• Security and Privacy Concerns: Ensuring the security and privacy of academic records is critical. While blockchain offers immutability and transparency, it also raises concerns regarding unauthorized data exposure and potential attacks on smart contracts. Zero-knowledge Proofs (ZKPs) and Trusted Execution Environments (TEEs) have been explored as viable methods to enhance security and privacy in blockchain-based academic credentialing. Additionally, quantum resistance remains a long-term concern, as advancements in quantum computing could compromise existing cryptographic schemes used in blockchain networks [27].
• User Adoption and Training: The technical nature of blockchain systems presents a steep learning curve for faculty and students unfamiliar with decentralized technologies. A lack of blockchain literacy could hinder adoption and effective utilization [28]. Therefore, user-friendly interfaces, comprehensive training programs, and educational resources are essential to facilitate widespread acceptance. Research has shown that gamified learning approaches and interactive tutorials can enhance blockchain adoption in academic settings [29].

At the same time, when outlining the research advantages and prospects for application, the members of the research team see great hopes for the development of this solution in the sphere of academic integrity and intellectual property rights. They have addressed these challenges in advance in their effort in designing and implementing the system to ensure a better and more efficient system in the future.

1.2. Study Objectives and Motivation Behind Them

The objective of the research is to ensure a systematic search of the literature on the security of digital assets and intellectual property in academic settings with the help of Blockchain and NFTs. The purpose of this study is to define and reveal the measures and approaches taken to protect the software, digital data, and other relevant items in universities. To this end, the PRISMA methodology for searching, screening, and sorting the papers is used on the selected key databases. In addition, four databases, including IEEE Xplore, ScienceDirect, ACM Digital Library, and SpringerLink, have been selected because they contain numerous related research papers and articles.

Therefore, based on the overarching objective, this investigation seeks to address specific research questions (RQ):

• RQ1: What is the distribution of papers across different years, focusing on Final Project, Degree, Copyright, Software, Digital Content, and University Internal Protection?
• RQ2: How are the chosen papers related to the proposed keywords concerning these topics?
• RQ3: Which of the papers explore Blockchain-based tokens and Cross-Chain (Smart Contract) as a review related to the academic setting?
• RQ4: Which papers explore non-fungible tokens, copyright, integrity, and software within academic and university contexts?
• RQ5: In the current landscape of Unique Assets of Digital Content, what constitutes the primary challenges that universities face regarding their internal protection processes?
• RQ6: What global standards are employed to safeguard the integrity and assets of digital content and media, especially in the context of educational institutions?
• RQ7: What types of NFTs are used to generate digital assets for content software and applications, and what methods and techniques are currently being utilized?

1.3. Contributions

This work aims to explore the application of blockchain and NFTs in the university context to secure the contents of academic theses. Most attention will be paid to choosing resources related only to this application. The key objective is then to offer an effective solution for protecting the conceptual information that should be included in the students’ theses.

The primary contributions can be summarized as follows:

• Synthesis of Existing Knowledge: To achieve this, we will perform a systematic review of the literature to provide a synthesis of the research studies in the field. Making this synthesis will give a clear connection on how both blockchain and NFTs can be applied to protect academic content. Further, we will describe the technical aspects and some of the ethical issues of their application in an academic context [30,31,32].
• Recommendations for Future Applications: From the identification of the project, recommendations on the future trend for the use of blockchain and NFTs in issues of intellectual property will be developed. This investigation will go outside the ivory tower’s research confines as a means of providing valuable information for other aspects of intellectual property management strategies [33,34].
• Identification of Emerging Trends: This study will reveal contemporary and fresh ideas for utilizing blockchain and NFTs to address the issue of copyright and intellectual property rights. This will help in the ongoing debate of emerging technologies in the field of intellectual property [35,36].
• Practical Validation and Case Studies: We will look at examples of the adoption of blockchain and NFTs in academic institutions, including current use cases and pilots. This analysis would reveal the experiences of practical difficulties or achievements in the implementation of these technologies in the context of this study [37,38].

2. Materials and Methods

The integration of blockchain technology with groundbreaking digital assets has been extensively examined in previous literature, particularly concerning information security, intellectual property protection, and blockchain’s core function: ensuring the authenticity of digital content in educational environments. One of the key aspects analyzed is how blockchain-based solutions, particularly NFTs, can help guarantee the authenticity of student-generated software. Additionally, studies highlight the benefits of using NFT technology to create immutable archives, securing ownership records and the history of digital assets [39].

Furthermore, the application of decentralized storage solutions alongside blockchain technology has been a central topic in recent discussions. These approaches aim to enhance security and accessibility for digital content by leveraging blockchain’s permanent and transparent nature [40]. For instance, research has demonstrated that hybrid blockchain solutions can enable the secure storage and retrieval of academic assets, reducing the risks of hacking and data loss [41].

In addition to these benefits, blockchain adoption in educational contexts presents technological, scalability, and performance challenges. A primary concern is the scalability of blockchain networks, especially as the demand for digital asset protection and ownership authentication continues to grow. Several solutions have been proposed, such as layer-two scaling techniques and off-chain computation, designed to improve performance without compromising security [42].

Moreover, integrating blockchain into academic environments raises concerns about usability and accessibility. To ensure widespread adoption, it is crucial that faculty members and students can seamlessly incorporate these technologies into their work so that they remain relevant in the long term. Research suggests that user-centered design and extensive training programs are essential to overcoming adoption barriers and facilitating a smooth transition to blockchain-based systems [43].

Finally, current global efforts to establish international standards for the application of blockchain and NFTs in intellectual property management remain ongoing. Ensuring compliance with institutional policies is crucial for creating a secure and legally sound framework for handling digital assets [44]. Overall, this line of research underscores the transformative potential of blockchain technology and NFTs in safeguarding academic intellectual property, advocating for their broader implementation not only in educational institutions but also in content management across the information society.

2.1. PRISMA

This section introduces the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) methodology as a useful framework for searching and selecting relevant articles on blockchain technology in educational environments. This methodology is based on a series of systematic and reproducible steps that allow for a comprehensive and exhaustive review of the literature. The aim is to leverage the benefits of this methodology, which include:

• Conducting a comprehensive and exhaustive review of the literature.
• Reducing bias in study selection.
• Increasing the transparency and reproducibility of the review.
• Facilitating the synthesis of available evidence.

The PRISMA methodology steps that will be implemented are as follows:

• Define the research question: What are the best practices for software project management in the post-production phase?
• Identify relevant studies: Articles will be searched for in the following databases: IEEE Xplore, ACM Digital Library, ScienceDirect, and Scopus. The search terms will be: “Authenticity”, “Blockchain”, “Copyright”, “Data protection”, “Degree Works”, “Digital certificates”, “Digital Rights Management”, “Intellectual Property”, “Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs)”, “Source code”, “Technological innovation”.
• Study selection: Studies that meet the following criteria will be selected:
  • Published in a Q1 or Q2 journal
  • Published in the last 10 years (2014–2024) to include recent advancements in blockchain and digital security.
  • Written in English or Spanish to ensure accessibility and broad applicability.
  • Directly relevant to the research question, specifically discussing blockchain, NFTs, and digital certificates in educational and intellectual property contexts.
• Data extraction: The following data will be extracted from the selected studies: Authors, Year of publication, Study title, Abstract, Methodology, Results, and Conclusions
• Data analysis: The data extracted from the different articles will be analyzed to identify the best practices for blockchain technology in educational environments.
• Presentation of results: The results of the review will be presented in an informative table and its respective analysis.

• Why PRISMA: The PRISMA methodology, designed for systematic reviews and meta-analyses, offers core principles that resonate strongly within this project’s context:

• Structured Literature Review: While this project involves system development, a PRISMA-inspired approach to the literature review would ensure a comprehensive and unbiased exploration of existing research. This includes using well-defined search terms in relevant databases, clear inclusion and exclusion criteria for studies, and a thorough analysis focused on security, intellectual property protection mechanisms, and educational applications of blockchain.
• Transparent Process: Documenting the literature search strategy, system design choices, and evaluation methods aligns with PRISMA’s emphasis on transparency. This allows others to understand the research process, assess its rigor, and potentially replicate the work.
• Focus on Evidence: PRISMA helps researchers move beyond subjective opinions and design a project that aims to generate concrete evidence. This can include data from security tests, insights from usability studies, and thematic analysis of feedback related to the system’s impact on academic integrity.
• Addressing Bias: Even in a single-institution project, biases can creep in when designing or choosing technological components. A PRISMA mindset encourages the researcher to actively consider potential biases in the literature they review, the architecture they propose, and their evaluation criteria.

By incorporating these elements, the project gains the following benefits:

• Credibility and Trustworthiness: A well-documented, evidence-based, and bias-aware approach strengthens the research findings. This is crucial when recommending potentially disruptive technology to a university’s stakeholders.
• Synthesis and Insights: PRISMA encourages researchers to move beyond just summarizing existing studies. It guides them toward identifying patterns, gaps, and areas ripe for innovation, making this project more likely to yield novel and useful solutions.
• Foundation for Future Research: A solid research foundation lays the groundwork for further exploration. The structured literature review can inform future meta-analyses, while the findings of this project might inspire replication studies at other universities.

By clearly articulating PRISMA’s role in this study, the methodology’s relevance becomes more apparent, bridging the gap between the literature review and the implementation of blockchain, NFTs, and digital certificates in academic settings.

2.2. Incorporation and Exclusion Parameters

To ensure a comprehensive and focused exploration of relevant research, the following parameters guide the literature selection process:

Incorporation Parameters

• Direct Relevance to Education: Studies explicitly investigating blockchain and NFT applications for intellectual property protection within academic settings are prioritized. This focus on the educational context ensures the review captures research directly applicable to the project’s specific challenge.
• Technical Depth: Papers detailing technical implementations, architectural choices, NFT designs, and security mechanisms relevant to similar use cases are actively sought. These provide insight into the feasibility and potential design considerations for the proposed source code protection system.
• Usability and Adoption Analysis: Studies addressing the usability of blockchain-based systems for students and faculty, as well as potential integration challenges within university workflows, are considered vital. Practical insights into adoption barriers and facilitators contribute to the design of a solution tailored to the specific needs of the academic environment.
• Empirical Data and Case Studies: Papers presenting quantitative or qualitative evidence from pilot projects or implementations of similar systems are highly valued. Such data enable an assessment of the technology’s potential impact on deterring plagiarism and safeguarding intellectual property.

Exclusion Parameters

• Outdated Technologies: Studies primarily focused on superseded blockchain platforms or earlier NFT standards are excluded to maintain focus on cutting-edge and actively maintained technologies.
• Cryptocurrency Emphasis: Papers with a central emphasis on cryptocurrency applications are excluded, even while acknowledging their reliance on blockchain. This refinement concentrates research on the application of blockchain specifically for intellectual property protection.
• Focus on Relevant Educational Applications: While some studies may offer valuable insights, those focusing on the application of blockchain in areas unrelated to intellectual property and higher education, such as healthcare or supply chain management, are excluded unless they directly contribute transferable knowledge to the educational domain.
• Non-Academic Focus: Priority is placed on studies conducted within academic institutions or contexts. Papers primarily exploring commercial applications are excluded to ensure the review reflects the specific challenges and regulations of the university setting.
• Lack of Empirical Basis: Purely conceptual or speculative discussions without data-driven analysis are excluded. The review favors studies grounded in concrete system designs, experimental results, or reasoned arguments.

The generalized PRISMA method used is shown in Figure 1:

Figure 1. The generalized PRISMA method used.

3. Results

In this section, we present the findings of our detailed review focused on the application of blockchain and NFT technologies in relation to intellectual property security in academic papers.

The analysis aimed to identify patterns, trends, and insights related to the current secure integration of blockchain and NFTs in the protection and authentication of source code in academic papers, covering the detailed evaluation of more than 100 selected studies. The obtained results are presented in a concise manner with meticulously produced concise tables and graphs. These visual representations make it easier to sort and analyze the wide range of papers reviewed, offering insights into key issues, methodologies, and emerging areas of interest at the crossroads between blockchain, NFTs technology, and higher education.

Results Based on the Proposed Research Questions

• RQ1: What is the distribution of papers across different years?

As shown in Table 1, there are no papers from 2020 and earlier that align with the theme of blockchain integration and intellectual authenticity. This is because most papers from those years primarily focused on the introduction and potential of blockchain in other contexts, without specifically addressing its application for the protection of intellectual property or the authenticity of source code, which are key areas in our proposal.

Table 1. Distribution of papers by years.

Year	Number of Papers
2020	20
2021	35
2022	38
2023	38
2024	2

The lack of papers during this period can be explained by the fact that the technology was still in its infancy during this period and has not been widely discussed in academic circles for such uses. Furthermore, the few papers available before 2021 may present data that could already be obsolete or solutions that, in the current environment, would no longer be feasible or helpful because of fast evolution, important for the technological context, and the need for improvements in the system of intellectual property.

Starting in 2020, there is a significant increase in publications, peaking in 2021 and 2022, with 31 articles published each year. This increase reflects growing interest and greater attention toward the integration of blockchain and NFT technologies in the protection of intellectual property and code authenticity. This coincides with the consolidation of these technologies and their recognition as effective tools to address challenges related to intellectual property in the academic environment.

The upward trend in publications during these recent years underscores the increasing importance and recognition of blockchain and NFTs as viable and necessary solutions for protecting intellectual property and authenticity in academia.

This recent focus also indicates a shift towards broader adoption of these technologies, driven by their ability to offer immutable and transparent records that secure authorship and the integrity of digital assets.

• RQ2: How are the chosen papers related to the proposed keywords?

The PRISMA method applied to answer question 2 is shown in Figure 2:

Figure 2. PRISMA method applied to answer: How are the chosen papers related to the proposed keywords?

During the review of the articles, we observed that many of them not only focused on establishing a relationship between blockchain and various domains but also on exploring how to ensure this connection to maintain the integrity and security of the chain. Table 2 categorizes these articles according to keywords such as integrity, copyright, software, digital content/asset, and NFTs. It was evident that a significant number of studies emphasized the intersection of blockchain with copyright and software applications. For example, considerable attention to the integrity and protection of digital content was noted, suggesting a robust focus on information security.

Table 2. Classification of research papers on blockchain based on given keywords.

Work	Integrity	Copyright	Software	Digital Content/Asset	Non-Fungible Token
[1,2,3,23,24,25,27,29,33,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54]	X		X
[10,11,12,26,28,30,31,32,39,42,44,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67]	X		X	X
[13,34,36,38,40,41,43,68,69,70,71,72]			X	X
[16,35,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90]			X	X	X
[19,20,21,37,91,92,93,94,95,96]		X	X	X
[97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110]	X		X		X
[98,111,112]	X	X	X		X
[113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120]		X	X	X	X
[121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130]	X	X	X
[95,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141]	X	X	X	X

In addition, many studies addressed both integrity and copyright, highlighting the importance of protecting digital assets in the blockchain environment. A particular interest in NFTs was also observed, with several papers exploring their specific applications and challenges. The distribution of different fields reveals a notable concentration on copyright and digital assets, indicating a thorough exploration of blockchain’s potential in various sectors.

This detailed analysis highlights the diverse but interconnected nature of blockchain research, emphasizing both its technological advances and practical implementations. The review highlights that most studies focus on issues related to security and integrity, rather than on the blockchain integration framework, which is crucial for the future development of this technology.

The VOSviewer-generated graph illustrates a co-occurrence analysis of keywords related to blockchain and its associated concepts (See Figure 3). In this visualization, larger nodes represent terms that appear more frequently in the dataset, indicating their prominence in the analyzed literature. The most significant keywords include “blockchain”, “block-chain”, “network security”, and “internet of things”.

Figure 3. Co-occurrence analysis of keywords.

The colors in the network graph represent different thematic clusters, grouping related terms based on their conceptual associations:

• Green Cluster: This cluster primarily includes terms such as network security, privacy, encryption, and authentication, which are fundamental to the secure implementation of blockchain in business and cybersecurity applications.
• Red Cluster: This group encompasses terms like digital assets, smart contracts, Ethereum, and NFTs, reflecting blockchain’s role in the digital economy, asset tokenization, and decentralized systems.
• Blue Cluster: This category focuses on the Internet of Things (IoT), consensus algorithms, and access control, highlighting the interplay between blockchain and automated digital ecosystems.
• Purple Cluster: This cluster includes open-source software and open systems, emphasizing collaboration and transparency in blockchain development.

Additionally, the graph reveals a strong emphasis on integrity and copyright protection, underlining the importance of securing digital assets within blockchain environments. Notably, there is significant interest in NFTs, with multiple studies exploring their applications and challenges. The distribution of thematic clusters indicates a strong research focus on copyright protection and digital assets, demonstrating blockchain’s expanding role across various sectors.

• RQ3: Which papers explore non-fungible tokens, copyright, integrity, software, and multichain?

The PRISMA method applied to answer question 3 is shown in Figure 4:

Figure 4. PRISMA method applied to answer: Which papers explore non-fungible tokens, copyright, integrity, software, and mul-tichain?

In conducting the search for different articles that could be related to the subject matter, five articles were found that are reviews and share a similar approach in their research on the integration of Non-Fungible Tokens, copyright, integrity, software, and multichain, providing a detailed overview of how these technologies are being applied to ensure the protection and authenticity of software works. As shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Papers that explore non-fungible tokens, copyright, integrity, software, and multichain.

Reference	Main Keywords	Contribution
[24]	Blockchain, consensus algorithm, risk, blockchain security	This article provides an in-depth review of blockchain technology, including its history, consensus algorithms, cryptographic details (public key cryptography, zero-knowledge proofs, and hash functions), and a comprehensive list of blockchain applications. In addition, it focuses on blockchain security, assessing security risks, analyzing real attacks and failures, and summarizing recent security measures. Finally, it presents the challenges and research trends to achieve more scalable and secure blockchain systems for massive deployments.
[29]	Blockchain technology, Multichain, simulation method, tracing drug	This study implements simulations with blockchain technology to track medicines, involving the pharmaceutical industry, wholesalers, health services, and consumers. The main contribution is to improve traceability in the supply chain through a Decentralized Autonomous Organization (DAO) that organizes data and transactions in blockchain. The simulation demonstrates key features of blockchain such as transparency, immutability, and peer-to-peer transactions, strengthening control over drug distribution.
[31]	Blockchain, digital transformation, food tracking and tracing, Multichain, private blockchain	In this article, the authors discussed the application of private blockchain using the Multichain open-source software that can be applied in agri-food products like food tracking and tracing, product life cycle, and anti-counterfeit. He points out that digital evolution enabled by disruptive technologies, including IoT, augmented reality, artificial intelligence, and blockchain, affects all spheres of human activity. Ever since blockchain was designed for cryptocurrencies, it has become a disruptor or an enabler of innovation in different sectors.
[91]	NFTs, non-fungible token, minting, ethereum, copyright, infringement, blockchain	This article addresses transactions of intrinsically valuable assets in the digital world using Blockchain-based NFTs used in games, literature, art, and music. As various NFT exchanges emerge, copyright infringement issues also arise. The article classifies the types of copyright infringement that can occur in NFT exchanges and proposes countermeasures. Ten types of NFT exchanges are examined, and it is hoped that the proposed countermeasures will help revitalize the NFT market by providing solutions to these problems.
[69]	NFTs, voting blockchain, escrow account	This paper proposes a secure blockchain architecture for NFTs that confirms transaction ownership and implements a secure payment method. NFTs, stored in a blockchain-based digital ledger, represent items such as photos, videos, audio, and other intellectual properties, certifying their uniqueness. The proposed architecture uses a transaction confirmation node called J Node to prevent errors in token transfer via an escrow account.
[142]	Non-fungible tokens, digital identity, verifiable credentials, blockchain technology, smart contract;	This white paper addresses two key problems of NFTs: data storage security and breaches and fraud. It proposes a theoretical solution for storing digital assets underlying NFTs in a decentralized manner and presents “Connect2NFT”, an application that connects Twitter accounts with NFTs to verify owner authenticity. A performance analysis and comparison with similar applications is performed, contributing to improving security and authenticity in the NFTs space.
[113]	Blockchain, elliptical cryptography, unique token, fractionalization, property right	In this study, authors outlined UML diagrams for the property rights distribution module through the fractal decomposition of NFTs, which are based on blockchain and conform to the ERC-1155 standard [78]. The blockchain, which is commonly used in the execution of operations in Bitcoin, helps in maintaining data and security without having a third party who is believed to be trustworthy. Implementation of this module creates the possibility of obtaining specific ownership fractions in decentralized applications by means of Ethereum cryptographic protocols. The objective is that, when creating new NFTs, a functionality should enable the fractalization and the sale of fractions to other people when guaranteeing security and meeting functionality requirements.
[112]	Blockchain, non-fungible-token, analytic hierarchy process, credit rating, internet of things	This paper proposes a method to measure the credit rating of users in a blockchain traceability system, addressing the lack of efficient technologies to ensure the authenticity of data before it is stored in the blockchain. It analyzes trading processes and models in NFT markets and uses the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) to establish a credit rating system based on an evaluation matrix and efficiency coefficient. The experimental results show that this credit evaluation system can help judge the reputation of users and decide whether to restrict transactions of users with abnormal behaviors.
[122]	Decentralized copyright, international copyright, cross-border copyright, copyright protection, consortium blockchain, proof of authority	This paper discusses an understanding of a novel copyright framework in global protection and international IP management using a consortium blockchain. By doing so, it enables copyright to be registered and traded internationally without the need for a universal cloud, with the use of a proof-of-authority consensus mechanism. Member countries also authenticate and settle transactions on the block chain while a tokenized payment is employed for the copyright fees. Based on some of the ideas above, a prototype was created and tested; some ideas were provided to help manage international copyrights.
[133]	Copyright protection, blockchain, deep learning, data models, music, generative adversarial networks, mathematical model	Deep learning models as applied to music composition and music copyright protection using blockchain technology is the innovation described by this paper. A deep convolutional generative adversarial network (DCGAN) has been utilized to synthesize monophonic melodies in addition to a multi-instrumental arrangement model called MICA. Additionally, a new scheme known as Improved Byzantine Fault Tolerance (IPBFT) has been put forward to safeguard the copyrights of digital music. The performance analysis reveals that the DCGANs and MICA models are more accurate and perform better as compared to other models. The IPBFT-based system is more efficient, with a high throughput of 3469 transactions per second and a 0% error rate.
[95]	Block-chain, digital copyright, algorithm, technology	This article investigates how blockchain technology, based on P2P networks and cryptography, can solve problems in the digital copyright industry: the confirmation, authorization, and maintenance of rights. Using blockchain’s self-monitoring, traceability, and decentralization features, as well as the Map function, this study improves the data transmission rate in a multi-channel model and significantly reduces the probability of digital copyright infringement.
[57]	Blockchain, distributed hash tables, embedded systems, automotive networks	This paper proposes a software and data provenance mechanism for the automotive industry that ensures the integrity and reliability of vehicular software. Since automotive software is complex and security-critical, and updates can introduce risks, the proposed approach uses distributed hash tables (DHTs) and a public blockchain to ensure high security, scalability, and efficiency, thus protecting users, service providers, and original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) against software compromises and errors.
[143]	Software protection, privacy distributed objects, services software, cryptographic controls, authentication, data encryption	In this article, the author provides a solution to the issue of software piracy and how to protect the copyrights through the implementation of what could be termed as decentralized software license validation system using blockchain technology and cryptocurrencies. The proposed method forms an environment where the privileges and rights of participants are observed. This has enhanced software protection since the 1970s, when the issue of license validation as the major solution to combat piracy came up.
[70]	Blockchain, distributed ledger, blockchain-based library management, ethereum, bitcoin, peer-to-peer network	This paper presents a blockchain-based library management system to overcome problems in auditing and inventory of books, journals, and periodicals, despite automation with RFID. Blockchain technology provides transparent and immutable records, which improves auditing and inventory control in advanced libraries. The implementation of a library management system using smart contracts written in Solidity in Remix IDE is demonstrated. The article includes the smart contract source code and screenshots of the blockchain-based book management system.
[115]	Smart contract system, non-fungible token, copyright	The problems addressed by this article are how, through NFTs, creators of art can easily register and sell their art through an implemented smart contract, which will mean that the ownership of the artwork can change hands with evidence of a verified digital certificate. It also looks at how NFTs are posted on marketplace galleries and offline galleries. As for the advantages and disadvantages of applying NFTs for copyright protection, the former include the legal genuineness of applying NFTs to the protection of copyrights, considering that NFTs are still a relatively young, unheard-of technology.
[61]	Blockchain, Multichain, decentralization, privacy, data sharing	This article presents a decentralized data-sharing architecture using the MultiChain blockchain, applied to the travel industry and adaptable to other domains such as education, health, and sports. The solution enables companies in the travel industry, such as travel agencies, hotels, and shopping malls, to share user profile data in a secure and controlled manner. A hotel booking service is used as an example, where users decide what data to share, ensuring privacy and control. The data are converted into an open format and shared across the blockchain for easy integration with other nodes. This paper evaluates the performance of the model by measuring latency and memory consumption in three test scenarios, showing fast responses in all cases.
[62]	Fin-Tech, blockchain, distributed ledger technologies (DLT), cryptography, equity market, integrity	This article develops a complex of reforms in financial transactions based on the decentralized application of the blockchain model, demonstrating the possibility of increasing the reliability of financial transactions in such spheres as Fin-Tech, Medicare, hospitality, manufacturing, and others. Applied to financial services, blockchain or distributed ledger technologies (DLT) ensure the integrity of records through cryptography to eliminate vices like money laundering. Major characteristics of those blockchains, including PoW and PoS, and their effects on the stock exchange, wealth management, payments and remittances, commerce, and insurance are highlighted in this article.
[47]	Wheat products, traceability, authority-control, hierarchical supervision, blockchain, multi-chain	To cover the shortcomings of centralized monitoring and privacy leakage in agricultural traceability systems, this paper proposes a hierarchical monitoring model of the wheat supply chain based on blockchain and Hyperledger Fabric. The model guarantees the availability and clarity of the data and strict control of private data, with their protection through encryption and the possibility of access control in terms of shares. The results indicate high security levels, while the average latency times are 6.67 ms for public data and up to 37.78 ms for private data monitoring, where protection of privacy and data monitoring in real time is possible.
[66]	Blockchain, asset traceability, data security, immutability	This article describes the possibilities of deploying blockchain in an organization’s supply chain and of sharing assets without formal permissions. The developed software application takes advantage of blockchain technology allowing it to provide more secure storage and immutable records for asset transfers that can either be public or private depending on the setting of the application. Data cannot be altered after entry and the push for accuracy means it will not require any manual check.
[48]	Blockchain, smart contracts, Multichain, submission systems	This article covers a real-life case of redesigning a homework submission system based on the blockchain approach. Nonetheless, it was not a perfect match for blockchain, but it helped us to have some fun and discover some compelling features of this technology that can be used in a hard and familiar problem. It expanded the knowledge base about what blockchain could potentially solve, and what issues it could avoid.

• RQ4: Which of the papers explores Blockchain-based tokens and Cross-Chain (Smart Contract) as a review related?

The PRISMA method applied to answer question 4 is shown in Figure 5:

Figure 5. PRISMA method applied to answer: Which of the papers explores Blockchain-based tokens and Cross-Chain (Smart Contract) as a review related?

The review of the articles reveals that several papers explore the use of Blockchain-based tokens and Cross-Chain solutions in the context of smart contracts. These studies focus on how these technologies can improve security, efficiency, and data management in various sectors, especially education and real estate. For example, one of the articles proposes a decentralized education system based on smart contracts that uses the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) to manage academic certificates, eliminating bureaucracy and reducing costs. This system ensures compliance with regulations such as GDPR, providing a more secure and efficient solution for managing educational documents.

Another paper presents a conceptual framework for the adoption of Blockchain-based smart contracts in the smart city real estate sector. This study identifies key aspects and details the use of the EVM to develop these contracts, improving the user experience and benefiting property owners and real estate agents by aligning with Industry 4.0. In addition, solutions for Domain Name System (DNS) centralization using Blockchain are addressed, optimizing domain management and speeding up transactions.

As shown in Table 4, these papers highlight how the integration of Blockchain and Cross-Chain solutions can transform traditional sectors by implementing advanced technologies that improve transparency, security, and operational efficiency while complying with regulatory standards and offering new, more robust, and reliable business models.

Table 4. Analysis of Blockchain-based tokens and Cross-Chain.

Reference	Contribution
[34]	This article proposes using blockchain to reduce costs and improve certification in higher education. It analyzes the prerequisites for decentralized education, suggesting a solution integrating zero-knowledge proofs (ZKP) with the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM). The improved system for managing academic documents complies with regulations such as GDPR and leverages smart contracts and a modular blockchain structure for enhanced security.
[36]	This article presents a conceptual framework for implementing blockchain-based smart contracts in the real estate sector of smart cities. Through a literature review, it identifies ten key aspects and proposes a design using the EVM to manage these contracts. The solution improves the user experience and benefits property owners and real estate agents, aligning the sector with Industry 4.0.
[41]	This article discusses centralization in the current Domain Name System (DNS) and proposes blockchain as a solution. The Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) supports a smart contract-based DNS to enhance governance, accelerate transactions, and improve domain name resolution. The study demonstrates a significant performance improvement in blockchain-based domain name management.
[44]	This article explores how blockchain’s security and decentralization could transform multiple industries, with a focus on the financial sector. It also examines the growing trend of NFTs, unique digital assets linked to art, music, and other content. Additionally, it analyzes the negative impacts of blockchain and NFTs across industries such as IoT, banking, music, agriculture, and healthcare.
[93]	This article examines the concepts, characteristics, and applications of NFTs in collectibles, crypto art, and gaming. It discusses issues such as property rights, valuation, and regulation. Additionally, it reviews relevant literature and suggests research directions on transaction models and NFT pricing. Finally, it explores the digitalization trend driven by NFTs.
[97]	This article evaluates the evolution of NFTs and their future potential from a technological perspective, as they are still not well-documented in the scientific literature. It analyzes current limitations and highlights the need to enhance blockchain security and conduct further research in this field.
[102]	This study explores how the metaverse merges the physical world with virtual reality, enabling trade and entertainment through avatars. NFTs, primarily used in gaming and art, have potential applications for real-world problem-solving. The research examines the role of blockchain and tokenization in the metaverse, their use cases, and challenges, encouraging further studies on their implementation.
[114]	This article examines the rise of asset tokenization—covering stocks, funds, debt, and intellectual property—driven by decentralized finance. Blockchain enables converting physical or digital assets into NFTs and trading them via cryptocurrencies. While NFTs are mostly used in digital art and gaming, the article proposes their application in real estate management, presenting a detailed model for implementation.
[45]	This article analyzes trends and challenges in using open-source software and ensuring compliance with licenses such as GPL, MIT, Apache, Mozilla, and BSD. It proposes using blockchain to enhance license management through modules like the Interplanetary File System (IPFS), smart contracts, and MetaMask to ensure legal, ethical, and security compliance.
[138]	This article introduces an innovative framework for managing intellectual property rights (IPR) through blockchain-based smart contracts. Developed within the EU-funded MediaVerse project, the framework extends smart legal contracts to manage cloning, notarization, rights transfers, and revenue distribution. The goal is to enhance the monetization and protection of content creators’ rights.

• RQ5: In the current landscape of Unique Asset of Digital content, what constitutes the primary challenges that Universities face regarding their internal protection processes?

The PRISMA method applied to answer question 5 is shown in Figure 6:

Figure 6. PRISMA method applied to answer the question five.

While analyzing the articles, we noticed that they not only demonstrate the existence of a link between blockchain and various domains but also the possibility of how this relationship would ensure cohesion to protect the chain’s sanctity. The studies considered a range of issues related to the management of a university’s internal processes of information security for specific digital content. Among the challenges include data security and privacy, particularly where large chunks of information are involved and flow across devices, creating problems in the protection of privacy. However, blockchain technology is accompanied by performance and scalability problems, which include transactions per second, block size, and many others.

Another crucial factor is multichain, where there is a combination of more than one blockchain, and handling multiple blockchains comes with other complications, including the integration of blockchains. This also brings out the issue of social control and regulation since decentralization can create problems with governance and regulation. At long last, the future consequences of integrating blockchain into IoT are unknown, as they involve complex issues related to security, privacy, and coordination.

However, there exists a stark lack of strong protocols for the decentralized storage and authentication of patents, such as NFTs, and simple solutions on how the authenticity and ownership of these patents will be verified. As blockchain rises as a more crucial focus in handling digital assets, it is important to solve these challenges. The results are presented in Table 5.

Table 5. Main challenges in the current landscape of unique assets or digital content and universities’ internal protection.

Reference	Challenges
[38]	This article highlights key challenges in merging blockchain with IoT, including data protection, privacy concerns, and the complexity of securing information across multiple devices. It discusses blockchain’s limitations, such as low throughput and block size constraints, as well as multichain integration issues. Decentralization also raises governance and regulatory concerns. Additionally, the long-term feasibility of blockchain–IoT integration, particularly regarding security, privacy, and efficiency, remains uncertain.
[111]	This paper emphasizes the need for decentralized storage solutions and NFT-authenticated patents. It explores decentralized verification of patent authenticity and ownership, blockchain implementation challenges, and real-world applications in areas such as financing, biotechnology, and ticketing. It also outlines unresolved legal, compatibility, and scalability concerns related to NFTs in patent management.
[56]	This article examines blockchain’s technological growth in smart grids, focusing on decentralization in billing, metering, and energy projects. It also discusses security threats, the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM), and smart contracts in this sector. By evaluating various protocols, it provides insights into their benefits and drawbacks, serving as a reference for developing a secure blockchain-based energy infrastructure.
[134]	This paper explores how blockchain enhances digital copyright protection through decentralization, timestamping, and traceable records. It outlines the blockchain’s role in registering and verifying digital copyrights, monitoring transactions, and preserving evidence. The study also presents a blockchain-based system to detect copyright infringement and provide legal proof while reducing costs and improving efficiency.
[135]	This article highlights problems in applying blockchain to multimedia copyright protection, including the lack of a systematic classification for applications and the limited number of successful implementations. It identifies gaps in the literature and technical barriers that hinder development. The study calls for further research to integrate technical and practical knowledge to enhance blockchain-based copyright protection.
[136]	This article discusses legal issues in applying blockchain to copyright protection, such as determining whether content should be stored on-chain or off-chain, the legal status of intermediaries, and balancing blockchain’s immutability with copyright flexibility. It also examines trust in blockchain records, the legalization of cryptocurrency transactions, and the economic implications of blockchain-based copyright management.
[46]	This article examines four critical issues in data protection and privacy within edge computing and blockchain: blockchain’s limitations in securing edge computing, the potential of a multi-chain master-slave system, integrating elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) with blockchain encryption, and managing user privileges. It also discusses the challenge of balancing low system overhead with high transaction rates.
[64]	This paper identifies challenges in using private blockchain infrastructure for academic certificate storage. It discusses certificate forgery prevention via hashing, the cost-effectiveness of private blockchains like Multichain compared to public blockchains, and the need for a secure, transparent, and low-cost data storage system that is easy to maintain.
[84]	This study details the development of a mobile digital library system that allows users to upload, borrow, read, and return books remotely. It employs digital protection techniques such as watermarking and content locking to prevent piracy and plagiarism. The article stresses the importance of implementing these techniques to safeguard digital assets and preserve electronic content.
[86]	This article identifies key challenges in protecting digital assets in universities, such as the need for revised legal frameworks, the difficulty in maintaining viable business models for open content creators, and the lack of coherent policies for production, financing, and marketing. These issues threaten the sustainability of the Open Content Filmmaking (OCF) movement.
[88]	This study explores the challenges of preparing future educators for the digital era, emphasizing the need to develop professional digital competencies aligned with teaching functions. It highlights the importance of integrating heuristic-digital, management-digital, and self-development-digital skills, along with digital security awareness, into higher education curricula to enhance educational digitization and data protection.
[90]	The article discusses blockchain’s potential to protect educational resources, particularly in music education and digital learning. It identifies challenges in designing a suitable architecture for copyright protection, assessing real-world applicability, and addressing model weaknesses. It also highlights the need for reforms to integrate blockchain into university-level music education to combat piracy.
[105]	Based on a case study at Universidad Centroamericana José Simón Cañas, this article outlines difficulties in developing digital competencies in social communication programs. These challenges include a lack of deep understanding of digital skills, limited environments for critical digital learning, and the absence of copyright and cybersecurity content in curricula, which impacts digital literacy.
[107]	This article analyzes digital rights management (DRM) systems in libraries, highlighting their role in copyright enforcement but also their limitations. It points out that DRM restricts content sharing and access while failing to prevent unauthorized downloads of e-books and e-journals. The study calls for better government policies to regulate copyright and fair use in digital libraries.
[109]	This article examines legal and regulatory challenges in protecting rights within Initial Coin Offerings (ICOs). Key risks include applying traditional intellectual property laws to ICOs, preventing money laundering, and ensuring personal data protection. It emphasizes the need for new regulations tailored to the evolving digital economy and blockchain-based financial systems.
[117]	This study explores the impact of digitization on higher education institutions, focusing on IT security threats, personal data protection, and the need for strategic adaptation to the digital economy. It highlights the importance of integrating information and communication technologies (ICT) in universities and suggests measures to ensure their effective implementation.

• RQ6: What global standards are used to safeguard the integrity and assets of digital content and media?

Thus, in the relatively short existence of digital culture, the issues of text and media integrity and protection appeared to be one of the key concerns. With the increased use of digital assets, there are also increased risks, such as hacking into the database, piracy, data loss, and theft of intellectual property. In response to these challenges, several international standards have been put in place to protect digital content and media. The PRISMA method applied to answer question 6 is shown in Figure 7:

Figure 7. PRISMA method applied to answer the question six.

These standards, developed by different international organizations, define frameworks and policies that assist organizations in protecting their digital resources, content, and intellectual property.

While reviewing the content of related works, it was found that, in addition to identifying the link between blockchain technology and various domains, attempts have also been made to identify ways to sustain this connection with the help of effective algorithms for the integrity and security of the blockchain. Some of the issues that these studies raise include data security and privacy, especially when using data on different devices. More specifically, there are concerns regarding performance and relative scalability, such as raw computing capacity and block size. When there are two or more blockchains, referred to as ‘multichain’, additionally issues arise, including coordination and communication between the blockchains, as well as social controls and regulation due to decentralization. In addition, the future usage of blockchain with the Internet of Things needs further assessment of its long-term effects on security, privacy, and efficiency.

Furthermore, the enhancement of proper solutions for the decentralized management and verification of virtual properties, for example, patents in the form of NFTs is increasing. A perfect match of geographically decentralized procedures of patent authenticity and propriety checking is also needed. Hence, given the role of digital asset protection in the modern blockchain landscape, these challenges need to be addressed properly. The following article aims to discuss some of the most common sets of standards globally found within this field with regard to their duties, application, and with special concern to the digital content and media industry. The details and results are presented in Table 6.

Table 6. Global standards used to safeguard the integrity and assets of digital content and media.

Reference	Description
[78]	This article explores barriers to NFT adoption, including usability issues that affect user experience and interoperability challenges limiting cross-platform functionality. Although NFT standards like ERC-721 and ERC-1155 [78] provide a foundation, the technology remains underdeveloped. Additionally, speculative market bubbles and the relative immaturity of NFTs compared to other technologies pose risks to their long-term stability.
[81]	This article examines the legal requirements of the California Consumer Protection Act (CCPA) and the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) concerning genomic data and smart contracts, including NFTs. These laws impose strict regulations on data storage, access, and processing, creating challenges for blockchain-based solutions. The study highlights how smart contracts with “programmable privacy” can offer digital ownership and legal compliance, with the Genobank.io platform serving as an example of genomic data protection.
[125]	This paper proposes a blockchain-powered data-sharing platform using the Interplanetary File System (IPFS) to improve trust, transparency, security, and immutability. Data are encrypted, divided into secret parts, and accessed via Solidity-based smart contracts. Users authenticate with RSA signatures and pay for content, while Ethereum blockchain and incentive mechanisms ensure security and owner authenticity. Testing on an Ethereum network shows improved computational efficiency using the Shamir Secret Sharing Scheme (SSS).
[126]	This article examines challenges in the art market regarding NFT technology, offering insights from an art technology entrepreneur. Despite initial enthusiasm, NFT transactions have declined, and empirical research on blockchain in the art industry remains limited. The study compares NFT use cases to the traditional art market and discusses the work of the Art ID Standard consortium, which focuses on decentralized identity and blockchain applications for artists and collectors.
[128]	This study presents a blockchain-based Digital Rights Management (DRM) system designed to enhance transparency and security by decentralizing license transactions. Smart contracts automate licensing, eliminating reliance on central servers. The system also enables flexible pricing models based on content usage rules. The paper’s main contribution is a blockchain-integrated licensing scheme that aligns with existing DRM standards for easier adoption by the industry.
[129]	This research highlights the increasing role of blockchain and automation in accounting and finance training. It identifies a gap between technological advancements and course content, revealing that only 5% of required digital applications are explicitly taught. The study emphasizes the need for updated curricula to address digital transformation, as instructors remain largely unaware of the latest developments in FinTech and automation.
[50]	This article reviews 18 blockchain-based solutions addressing electronic health record (EHR) interoperability challenges, including reliability, privacy, and standardization. The study follows a six-phase research process and discusses best practices, implementation models, and adoption barriers for blockchain in EHR management. It provides a comprehensive analysis of existing solutions and their potential for improving healthcare data sharing.
[52]	This paper discusses HealthPocket, a blockchain-powered platform for secure health data exchange using a dynamic consent mechanism aligned with HL7 FHIR standards. Blockchain ensures data authenticity and security while enabling collaboration between medical institutions. By using standardized templates, HealthPocket facilitates seamless and tamper-proof health data sharing across global healthcare networks.
[54]	This article explores blockchain’s potential to enhance digital identity and credentialing in education. It highlights governance, interoperability, and trust challenges that have limited blockchain adoption in educational processes. The study focuses on digital credentialing in Europe, emphasizing the importance of self-sovereign digital identity and infrastructure integrity for successful blockchain implementation in education.
[83]	This paper proposes integrating Hardware Security Modules (HSM) with blockchain, particularly in public key cryptography, to enhance authenticity, authorization, and integrity. HSMs provide physical protection as a “root of trust” in decentralized systems. The study presents a proof-of-concept analysis, demonstrating that HSM integration improves security in industrial IoT systems, aligning with PKCS standards for decentralized content and asset protection.

• RQ7: What types of NFTs are used to generate digital assets for content software and applications, and what methods and techniques are currently being utilized?

The PRISMA method applied to answer question 7 is shown in Figure 8:

Figure 8. PRISMA method applied to answer the question seven.

NFTs have become a significant change on the digital spectrum as it has presented an innovative method of attesting to the ownership and uniqueness of digital entities. Automatically and artificially, as exclusive cryptographic tokens, NFTs have been employed to provide provenance of digital assets and content, software, and applications. In doing so, original owners and creators are now able to monetize their work in breakthrough ways. NFTs’ rapidly increasing popularity concerns various fields in the sphere of digital assets, such as art, music, virtual land, and in-game items. This evolution has been caused by the need for secure and verifiable ownership in a digital environment, which is captured by NFTs using blockchain technology.

While analyzing articles identified in the previous stage, it was found that different kinds of NFTs are used to create digital assets regarding content software and applications. Some of them include utility NFTs, which grant the holder certain privileges in a digital ecosystem; collectible NFTs, which are widely used in gaming and virtual worlds; and functional NFTs, which are essential and embedded into the operational features of the software application. The studies also discussed the ways and means adopted in generating and developing these NFTs, along with focusing on the smart contracts that play an essential part in facilitating transactions and ownership regimes. Moreover, Ethereum and Binance Smart Chain are the most popular platforms for developing, trading, and storing NFTs, as they ensure safety and prevent tampering.

The constant creation and implementation of new NFTs for digital assets in content software and applications require that proper methods and appropriate techniques be developed to harness this technology. This article will strive to explore the current use of NFT types and the techniques applied in creating and handling them in the current market, with insights on future advancements of this progressive and innovative segment. Table 7 compiles the various methods and techniques used in the generation of digital assets.

Table 7. Methods and techniques used in the generation of digital assets for content software and applications using NFTs.

Reference	Title	Content
[103]	NFTs as a Proof of Digital Ownership-Reward System Integrated to a Secure Distributed Computing Blockchain Framework	This paper suggests an organizational infrastructure in the blockchain context using “Hyperledger Fabric” technology, through which companies can securely transmit and share information. One of the ways is embracing digital asset technology, which encodes data in NFTs to reduce the possibility of forgery. It uses smart contracts and adopts the IPFS decentralized storage system, with all components interfacing via a WEB application. The solution is feasible, manageable, and applicable to the development of new systems and processes in digital asset management.
[85]	Royalty-Friendly Digital Asset Exchanges on Blockchains	This study addresses the automatic distribution of royalty payments associated with digital assets, especially NFTs. It proposes a marketplace-independent trading framework for royalty management, called RM-TLSC (Royalty Management Token-Level Smart Contract), which creates synergies between the token and smart contract paradigms, ensuring royalty management throughout the asset lifecycle. An open-source software implementation for the Ethereum blockchain is provided, and the generality of the approach is verified with a proof-of-concept for the Tezos blockchain. Effectiveness is demonstrated with a case study related to the ISO 21000-23 [144] media smart contract standard.
[87]	On the Scrutinization of the NFTs Valuation Factors	This paper investigates the concept of software in relation to NFTs, with more emphasis on the inception and selling of NFTs based on the underpinning digital or tangible assets. What it specifically does is that it outlines a method for evaluating the value of an NFT and how best to anticipate its success. However, it points out that community and scarcity are dominating the valuation of NFTs and again dwells more on the relationship between factors and NFT prices. It also provides possible future research prospects within this field.
[89]	Blockchain and NFTs: a Novel Approach to Support BIM and Architectural Design	This research focuses on the benefits of blockchain technology in the use of Building Information Modeling (BIM) system adopted in structural designing and construction project management. It explains how, and why, NFTs could be used to manage the provenance and ownership of relatively bespoke and precise digital goods—such as BIM models—represented by digital files. These NFTs help to solve questions related to copyright, as well as manage author’s and owner’s rights for numerous large projects; they also help with file certification. The findings of the study also show that incorporation of BIM with blockchain can enhance security and raise efficiency in the administration of digital assets in architectural, engineering, and construction projects through effective protection of copyright and sharing of information.
[104]	Forecasting NFTs Prices on Web3 Blockchain Using Machine Learning to Provide SAAS NFTs Collectors	This study investigates NFTs, describing them as unique digital assets that may include art, video game goods, and entertainment collectibles. These NFTs are distinguished by their exclusivity and authenticity, backed by digital certificates. The paper introduces a Software as a Service (SAAS)-based system that uses Web3 blockchain technology to facilitate the management, security, and trading of these digital assets. This system enables unrestricted access and detailed analysis of NFTs. In addition, the study applies adaptive enhanced convolutional neural networks (AICNN) and a tree seed chaotic atom search optimization (TSC-ASO) algorithm to predict the prices of NFTs, demonstrating that this methodology is effective in generating accurate predictions about the future value of these assets.
[106]	Is Non-Fungible Token Pricing Driven by Cryptocurrencies?	This study analyzes NFTs as the first application of blockchain technology to reach public prominence. NFTs are exchangeable rights to digital assets (images, music, videos, virtual creations) whose ownership is recorded in smart contracts on the blockchain. It is investigated whether the price of NFTs is related to that of cryptocurrencies. Through a spillover index, a limited volatility transmission between cryptocurrencies and NFTs is observed, while a wavelet coherence analysis shows a co-movement between the two markets. This suggests that the pricing behaviors of cryptocurrencies could help us to understand the pricing patterns of NFTs. However, the low volatility transmission indicates that NFTs could be considered an asset class with a low correlation with respect to cryptocurrencies.
[108]	NFTs Luxury Brand Marketing in the Metaverse: Leveraging Blockchain-Certified NFTs to Drive Consumer Behavior	This paper explores how Industry 4.0 technology can increase the value of digital assets in the metaverse of luxury brands in the virtual marketplace to retain their brand image and target new customers. In this way, luxury brands can guarantee the process of marketing and shelter consumers’ digital properties with the help of blockchain-based NFTs’ ability to check assets’ originality. The study examines the consumer attitudes towards luxury NFTs in the metaverse and found out that the psychological evaluation aspects are the reason influencing the purchase of such products. Thus, the study expands the horizons of game theory and prospect theory while presenting arguments based on the psychological perception of the risks that result in failures/successes in purchasing (or not purchasing) luxury fashion NFT in global virtual markets.
[110]	Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs): A Review of Pricing Determinants, Applications and Opportunities	This work intends to examine the current and upcoming opportunities in the NFT market, with a special emphasis on price factors and applications. It looks at the status of the NFT markets, and the investors’ attitudes and expectations towards these products. It offers an overview and a comparative analysis of the financial and econometric models used in the literature regarding their predictive capabilities for valuing NFTs. This paper presents a conceptual model for the analysis of the formation of NFT prices and aims to reveal the value creation drivers behind these assets to explain investors’ behavior in the blockchain environment.
[118]	Patents and Intellectual Property Assets as Non-Fungible Tokens; Key Technologies and Challenges	This paper investigates the role of NFTs in intellectual property, which is still a relatively uncharted terrain when it comes to NFTs as opposed to digital art, video games, and collectibles. However, with the rapid development of tokenization, through the token-like and non-tangible characteristics, NFTs have a chance to enhance the transparency and marketability of intangible assets like a patent. As part of the research, they proposed a conceptual framework for patents as NFTs and elaborated on the filing specifications for intellectual property assets as NFTs. Furthermore, it identifies new issues as well as future considerations towards NFT-based patents, providing the foundation and direction for companies to employ this technology in areas such as patenting, financing, and biotechnology.
[119]	A Review of Non-fungible Tokens Applications in the Real-world and Metaverse	This research delves into the rise in popularity of NFTs, which were first introduced in 2017 utilizing blockchain technology and are now being increasingly utilized in both commercial and scholarly investigations. The paper examines the existing uses of NFTs and delves into their possibilities within the Metaverse, a blockchain technology that facilitates interactions with digital personas in a virtual realm. It elaborates on how NFTs can enhance identity management and rights to ownership of assets within the Metaverse, while also suggesting potential future applications in research and industry.
[120,145]	Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs): New Emerging Digital Asset	This article delves into the expanding realm of NFTs, which has seen growth in recent years. The concept originated from Ethereum, allowing for the creation of tokens with distinctive digital attributes tied to factors like age, rarity, and liquidity. As of May 2021, NFT sales have surpassed $34 million in value, capturing global interest for their lucrative investment potential. However, the NFT landscape is still nascent, with ongoing technological advancements and a need for comprehensive assessments. This document offers a look at NFT ecosystems, covering new approaches, potential risks and rewards, as well as technical elements like protocols and standards that are important features to consider in the digital asset space. It also includes an evaluation of safety measures and explores design concepts, along with the opportunities and hurdles involved in the NFT ecosystem, marking it as a pioneering analysis in this field.

4. Discussion

In analyzing the presented articles, several key contributions and areas of interest for future research in the field of digital content protection and data integrity using emerging technologies like blockchain were identified. The following discussion covers the results and challenges posed by the selected articles:

4.1. Integration of Hardware Security Modules (HSM) and Blockchain

This development in the Industrial-IoT domain from a security point of view is remarkable when HSM, along with blockchain technology, is integrated. This hardware-based root-of-trust is vital to protect against physical tampering and unauthorized access to critical systems, rendering an HSM essential for any organization currently [82]. When it comes to blockchain, HSMs are key management elements that enable the best encryption processes possible, improving the overall security architecture. This combination is particularly attractive in situations where the safekeeping of sensitive data is paramount, such as academic records management and certification processes in educational institutions [83]. However, interoperability and standard decryption require extensive overhead for multiple HSMs, as do hundreds of different blockchains. Future research should explore how standardized HSM-enabled blockchain solutions could enhance the integrity of academic credentials and digital rights in education.

4.2. Blockchain-Based Digital Rights Management (DRM)

The main advantages of using blockchain technology in DRM can be understood if one examines the shortcomings of traditional DRM systems, which can indeed be centralized and nontransparent [139]. The presented solution of utilizing blockchain ensures the possibility of effectively providing information on copyrights and transactions in an unchangeable and transparent manner to all parties interested in the process. The use of smart contracts makes the process of enforcing the rights concerning the copyright terms, as well as the issue of licenses, more efficient by eliminating the need for a central server and control and the associated issues with hacking and unauthorized access [128]. Despite such benefits, there are certain problems that arise during the shift to blockchain-based DRM systems: compliance with existing models of DRM, the problem of the blockchain’s ability to perform at varying scales, and the problem of developing an intuitive interaction with the system. However, a crucial gap exits in the definition of new legal concepts and subsequent regulation, adequate for blockchain applications in DRM. Further research should be focused on evaluating the feasibility of employing such methods, identifying the scalability solutions for implementing blockchain DRM systems on a large scale, and determining the legal requirements that would enable large-scale implementation of such systems in the global market [107].

4.3. Information-Sharing Platforms in the Scientific Community

Introducing the blockchain into the scientific community aligns with the solution to secure data sharing [37]. Conventional processes of exchanging data typically involve the help of a third party, and this can negatively affect the levels of trust, openness, and data quality. Blockchain, alongside such technologies as InterPlanetary File System (IPFS), forms a decentralized structure that increases data protection and makes record updates irreversible [68]. This is especially the case in the published literature, especially in the scientific literature, where the data generated must be accurate and reproducible. The proposed blockchain-based platforms enhance the security of data sharing, where smart contracts are used for the management of access control and data sharing agreement [100]. They are as follows: the scalability of the data, the expensive cost of storage on the blockchain, and questions on how to incorporate these technologies in research. It is recommended that future studies investigate the main methods of addressing such challenges, such as efficient data management, low transaction costs, and improved application of blockchain technology and systems to researchers.

4.4. Use of Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) in the Art Market

The application of NFTs in the art market is a new way of establishing the identity and ownership of digital art [115]. Through the incorporation of blockchain, NFTs confirm that a certain piece of content is original and unique. It could significantly disrupt the conventional art market since it will create new income sources for artists and the collectors will have more revenue to ensure that the works they are purchasing are original. Various challenges persist with the market for NFTs, including floppiness of the current market, effects on blockchains’ energy use, and little research on the economic effects of NFTs in the art market [47]. Thirdly, to achieve better and more efficient regulations of NFTs, there must be certain practices and legislation that could guarantee more safety for the artists, collectors, and investors. More studies should be conducted as to the future viability of NFTs, standard guidelines for their application, and the social and ecological impacts of blockchain in the art economy, as well as environmental and regulatory concerns related to blockchain and NFTs [110].

4.5. Education and Digital Competencies

This can be attributed to the fact that there seems to have been an increased rate of digitization across industries, including those in higher learning institutions’ areas of interest such as accounting and finance [34]. Since digital technologies such as blockchain are gradually integrating into these fields, the graduates need to be ready to operate in this environment. This comprises skills in the management of content in digital environments, distributed records in the blockchain, and autonomous decentralized systems of P2P nodes. Nonetheless, the current curricula offer a mismatch between the skills students are prepared for and the real-world expectations today [64]. Furthermore, many educators who are directly involved with teaching their students may not possess the know-how to teach the new technologies. To fill these gaps, future research should aim at designing more extensive teacher training programs, designing segmented and flexible curriculum models, and incorporating the processes by which learners engage with technologies in their curricular learning activities. This will not only equip students with knowledge on how to handle situations in an economy with prominent applications of the internet and technology but also enable educational institutions to remain relevant in a fast-changing world [90].

4.6. Addressing Implementation Challenges in Blockchain and NFTs for Academic Integrity

Despite the transformative potential of Blockchain and NFTs in securing academic intellectual property, several challenges hinder large-scale adoption in university environments. To overcome these barriers, targeted mitigation strategies must be developed to ensure seamless integration, usability, and regulatory compliance.

• Institutional Integration and Scalability Solutions: One of the primary concerns is the technical complexity involved in integrating Blockchain with existing LMS and institutional repositories. To facilitate this process, hybrid architectures combining off-chain storage (e.g., IPFS) with on-chain verification can optimize performance while maintaining decentralization. Additionally, permissioned blockchains offer a scalable alternative, allowing universities to control access while benefiting from Blockchain’s security features.
• Enhancing Adoption through User-Centered Design: For Blockchain and NFTs to gain traction in academia, ease of use is critical. Implementing intuitive user interfaces within university portals will lower the barrier for faculty and students. Moreover, comprehensive training programs should be introduced to familiarize users with Blockchain-based certification systems. Gamification strategies, such as rewarding students with NFT-based certifications for academic achievements, can also boost engagement and drive widespread adoption.

5. Conclusions

This review aimed to analyze the status and implementation of Blockchain and NFTs technologies in protecting the authenticity and intellectual property of source code within academic environments. Through a systematic examination of over 100 recent articles, this study has identified key advancements, persistent challenges, and future directions in the integration of these technologies. Over the past five years, academic interest in Blockchain and NFTs has increased steadily, particularly in areas related to security, digital certification methods, and code integrity.

The growing relevance of Blockchain and NFTs in ensuring the authenticity and ownership of software developments in academia is evident in the reviewed literature. The number of related publications has risen consistently since 2018, with notable peaks in 2021 and 2023. Most studies emphasize the need for enhanced security measures, highlighting Blockchain’s potential to ensure software traceability and integrity, while NFTs offer a unique capability to create immutable digital certificates for intellectual property protection.

However, several unresolved challenges remain, including scalability, efficiency, cost, integration complexity, quantum resistance, and the balance between centralization and decentralization. Addressing these issues is essential for fully unlocking the potential of Blockchain and NFTs in academic applications. Nevertheless, the reviewed studies propose various techniques and architectural improvements to mitigate these limitations, including advances in cryptographic methods, the integration of both on-chain and off-chain solutions, the use of Trusted Execution Environments (TEEs), and decentralized file storage solutions. Further research is required to optimize the trade-offs between scalability, efficiency, security, and privacy in Blockchain-based academic systems.

This review serves as a foundation for academics and practitioners seeking to advance the secure adoption of Blockchain and NFTs in educational environments. By summarizing both the progress made and the existing gaps, this study provides a basis for future research efforts in this evolving field. While these technologies present promising opportunities, additional studies are needed to develop practical solutions for secure, decentralized, and efficient systems that protect the intellectual property of software developments in academia. In this regard, this review establishes a reference point for further exploration, guiding future efforts toward meaningful integration and advancement in intellectual property protection and digital content integrity within academic institutions.

In conclusion, these technologies have promising possibilities in integration but there is still potential for further studies, which will make possible the formation of practical solutions for providing secure decentralized and efficient systems for managing and protecting the intellectual property of the software developments in academia. In this way, this review establishes the base and a starting point to proceed in this new field. In this paper, the current situation on the integration of Blockchain and NFTs has been described based on the literature available in the current world. Thus, in these conclusions, we have identified the most significant emerging limitations, gaps, and significant progress by analyzing relevant articles, as highlighted above. These conclusions are not meant to suggest specific solutions to the problems that have been identified; rather, these conclusions are meant to serve as a roadmap to help progress toward change and meaningful integration into the practices of intellectual property protection and authenticity of software developments in academic organizations.