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Review

Agricultural Plastic Mulch: A Brief Review of Development, Composition and Catalytic Upcycling Strategies

by
Yang Wan
1,
Yangyang Yang
1 and
Weiqiang Zhou
1,2,*
1
Institute of Green Chemistry and Chemical Technology, School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
2
Foshan (Southern China) Institute for New Materials, Foshan 528200, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Catalysts 2025, 15(4), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15040310
Submission received: 28 February 2025 / Revised: 17 March 2025 / Accepted: 18 March 2025 / Published: 25 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineral-Based Composite Catalytic Materials)
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Abstract

:
Agricultural plastic mulch film, valued for its superior heat insulation and moisture retention, is widely used globally but has led to significant microplastic accumulation in soils, threatening agricultural ecosystems. This paper reviews its development and environmental impact, focusing on recycling and upcycling technologies, particularly catalytic recovery methods (with nearly 100% conversion efficiency) such as photocatalysis, thermocatalysis, and photothermal catalysis. It analyzes technical challenges and future directions in upcycling, emphasizing the role of catalysis in converting waste plastic mulch into hydrocarbon resources. This paper also evaluates the progress and challenges of biodegradable alternatives. By offering scientific insights and innovative approaches, it aims to reduce plastic mulch pollution, enhance resource utilization, and promote sustainable agriculture.

1. Introduction

In the process of agricultural modernization, the wide application of mulch is undoubtedly a revolutionary initiative. Since the 1950s, mulch technology has come into use, acting like a layer of magic on the Earth’s ‘coat’ to create a more favorable environment for crop growth [1,2,3]. Plastic mulch can significantly improve the micro-environment of arable fields by virtue of its excellent heat-insulating and moisture-retaining properties. By raising the temperature of the tillage layer by 3–5 °C and reducing water evaporation by 30–50 per cent, it creates an ideal growing environment for crop root development. Mulch technology creates a physical barrier that reduces weed germination by more than 60%, blocks the spread of soil-borne diseases, and improves the utilization of light and heat resources by about 20%, ultimately increasing crop yields by 15–25% and significantly increasing commercial yields [4,5]. Zhang and his co-workers compared two maize–soybean intercropping systems (with and without mulch) with monocropping of maize and soybean. Their findings revealed that mulch cover significantly increased root length or mass in the interspecific overlap area, improved maize root morphology, and balanced soil resource utilization and above-ground development. As a result, these improvements led to an increase in grain yield within the intercropping system [6].
However, with the continuous growth in the usage volume of plastic mulch, the issue of plastic mulch pollution has become increasingly prominent. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), approximately 2 million tons of plastic mulch are utilized annually worldwide, covering an estimated 30 million hectares of agricultural land each year. However, the recovery rate of this material remains alarmingly low, averaging just 30%. Consequently, significant quantities of plastic mulch accumulate in croplands, with estimates suggesting an average buildup of 50 to 100 kg per hectare. This persistent presence poses a growing environmental challenge for agricultural ecosystems globally [7]. Most plastic mulches are fabricated from high-molecular polymers such as polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). These materials possess stable chemical properties and are highly resistant to degradation in the natural environment. The plastic mulch residues in the soil gradually fragment into small pieces, thereby giving rise to “white pollution” [8]. The long-term accumulation of plastic mulch fragments can disrupt the soil structure, impede the transfer of soil moisture and nutrients, and have an impact on the growth and development of crop roots, ultimately resulting in a decline in crop yields. Research indicates that when the residual amount of plastic mulch in the soil reaches 3.9 kg/mu, the yields of crops like corn and wheat may experience a reduction ranging from 9% to 23% [9,10]. Furthermore, plastic mulch fragments may enter water bodies along with surface runoff, inflicting damage on the aquatic ecosystem. Once ingested by animals, they can pose a threat to their health and even their lives [11]. Gan et al. investigated the influence of environmentally simulated microplastics (EMPs) on the bioavailability of Cd and Cr in soil and their phytotoxicity through pot experiments. The results demonstrated that a 5% dosage of PE and EMP significantly decreased the soil pH value, water-holding capacity, and organic carbon content. The decrease in the pH value enhanced the mobility and bioavailability of Cd and Cr. Notably, PE and EMP increased the bioavailability of Cr in the 15 cm deep soil layer [12].
Given such a severe situation, it is extremely urgent to seek effective treatment methods for agricultural plastic mulch films. In recent years, scholars at home and abroad have carried out extensive research, mainly focusing on aspects such as the recycling and upcycling technologies of waste mulch films, the research and development of degradable mulch films, and source reduction measures. Technologies such as mechanical recycling and chemical recycling (incineration, pyrolysis, and catalytic upgrading) provide various solutions for the treatment of waste mulch films, but they still face challenges such as high costs and low efficiency. Meanwhile, the research and development of new degradable mulch films (such as starch-based materials, polylactic acid, and polyhydroxyalkanoates) has provided a new direction for reducing mulch film pollution, yet their costs, performances, and degradation rates still need further optimization [13,14].
This brief review begins with an overview of the development history and fundamental composition of agricultural plastic mulch films. Subsequently, it examines the adverse environmental impacts of these plastic mulch films. The focus then shifts to the recycling and upcycling strategies for waste mulch films, encompassing traditional recycling methods as well as catalytic conversion techniques. Following this, the development and application of novel agricultural mulch films are discussed. Finally, the challenges faced by current recycling technologies and potential future directions are explored, including the integration of multiple catalytic approaches and the design of advanced catalysts, providing forward-looking recommendations for future research. Through this comprehensive review, this paper aims to offer theoretical foundations and technical insights for the sustainable utilization and recycling of agricultural plastic mulch films, particularly through catalytic upcycling, thereby promoting the green transition of agricultural production.

2. Introduction to Plastic Mulch Films and Their Hazards

2.1. Development History of Plastic Mulch Films

Over the course of several hundred years, depending on the climatic conditions in different regions of the world, various natural materials (such as straw and volcanic ash) have been used for covering crops [15,16]. In the 1950s, the concept of agricultural plastic mulch films was first proposed and applied to cover horticultural crops (such as strawberries and vegetables) to increase yields and improve quality. In the 1960s, Japan and the United States took the lead in promoting the plastic mulch film technology. Subsequently, polyethylene (PE) mulch films were widely adopted on a large scale globally, which significantly enhanced agricultural production efficiency [15]. However, the long-term use of mulch films has led to the accumulation of microplastics in the soil. Research by Li shows that after 32 consecutive years of using plastic mulch films, the number of microplastics in the surface soil (0–10 cm) reached 7183–10,586 pieces/kg, and, in the deep subsoil (80–100 cm), it reached 2268–3529 pieces/kg, seriously polluting both the surface and subsurface soils [17]. The photo-degradable and oxygen-degradable plastics introduced since the 1980s have failed to effectively solve the pollution problem. Instead, they have exacerbated microplastic pollution [18].
In the 1990s, plastic mulch technology underwent significant optimization, marked by the introduction of various functional films (such as black, silver, and dual-color mulches) and advancements in thickness and strength to cater to the diverse needs of different crops and climatic conditions. In recent years, driven by heightened environmental awareness, the focus of agricultural plastic mulch has shifted toward the development of biodegradable materials (such as polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)) and efficient recycling technologies. However, developing countries encounter substantial hurdles in adopting biodegradable materials and lag behind developed nations due to technical, infrastructural, and economic constraints. The lack of production expertise and inadequate composting and recycling facilities hinder material degradation, while high costs and limited funding render biodegradable products less competitive. Overcoming these challenges requires technology transfer, robust policy support, and international collaboration to enable sustainable large-scale applications.
Notably, catalytic upgrading offers a promising method to convert waste mulch films into high-value products like fuels, chemicals, or catalyst carriers, reducing their environmental impact [19,20]. These topics will be explored in greater detail in subsequent sections. These innovations aim to foster a circular economy for plastic mulch films and promote the harmonious coexistence of agriculture and the environment. Looking ahead, through technological advancements (such as multi-catalytic collaborative systems and novel catalyst designs) and robust policy support, agricultural plastic mulch is expected to become more environmentally sustainable and efficient. This evolution will not only bolster sustainable agricultural development but also offer innovative solutions to address the pressing issue of plastic pollution.

2.2. Composition of Plastic Mulch Films

At present, the composition of agricultural mulch films primarily includes the base material, additives, and functional components, each of which plays a critical role in optimizing performance and achieving desired functionalities. The base material, as the primary component, is typically composed of plastic polymers, with common materials including polyolefin plastics such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Among these, polyethylene (PE) has emerged as the most widely used material in mulch film production due to its exceptional properties. Depending on the polymerization process and density, polyethylene can be categorized into low-density polyethylene (LDPE), linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), and high-density polyethylene (HDPE). LDPE is characterized by its excellent flexibility and transparency, making it easy to install and operate. Mulch films made from LDPE provide effective thermal insulation and moisture retention environment for crops, and thus are extensively utilized in agricultural production [10,21]. LLDPE is renowned for its superior tensile strength and puncture resistance, which significantly extend the service life of mulch films and reduce damage caused by external forces, making it ideal for planting scenarios requiring high mechanical strength. HDPE, with its higher density and hardness, produces more durable mulch films, often employed in environments demanding greater strength and longevity.
In addition to polyethylene, polypropylene (PP), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are also commonly used plastic polymers in mulch film production. Polypropylene is distinguished by its excellent strength and heat resistance, making it particularly suitable for high-temperature planting environments. It maintains shape stability and resists chemical erosion, thereby offering a longer service life. However, its flexibility is inferior to polyethylene, limiting its application in scenarios requiring frequent bending or high operational flexibility. Polyvinyl chloride, on the other hand, excels in weather resistance and mechanical properties, effectively withstanding ultraviolet rays and harsh climatic conditions while remaining resistant to aging even under prolonged sun exposure. By incorporating different plasticizers and other additives, its softness and other properties can be flexibly adjusted to meet diverse agricultural needs. Nevertheless, PVC may generate harmful substances such as hydrogen chloride and dioxins during production, and its resistance to degradation after disposal poses significant environmental challenges, which restricts its widespread application. Table 1 presents a concise summary of the aforementioned content.
In the production of mulch films, the incorporation of additives is essential, as they primarily enhance the physical and chemical properties of the films and extend their service life [22,23,24]. For instance, antioxidants are employed to prevent oxidative degradation, thereby prolonging the films’ durability, while plasticizers improve flexibility and processability, thus facilitating easier installation and handling. Additionally, to address the specific requirements of diverse planting environments, functional components are often integrated into mulch films [25]. For example, water-retaining agents such as polyacrylamide (PAM) can significantly enhance the films’ water retention capacity, reduce soil water evaporation, and optimize crop water-use efficiency [26,27]. Insect-repellent components, including plant extracts or chemical repellents, can effectively deter pests, reduce the reliance on pesticides, and mitigate environmental pollution. Furthermore, given the potential electrostatic properties of certain base materials or additives, antistatic agents are also incorporated to minimize dust adsorption, improve the films’ light transmittance, and optimize crop photosynthesis efficiency [28].
In recent years, with the continuous development of catalytic technology, the functional scope of plastic film has been further expanded. Researchers have developed novel mulch films with photocatalytic or biocatalytic functions by introducing catalytic components into mulch materials. These catalytic mulch films not only retain the advantages of traditional mulch films, but can also degrade pesticide residues and organic pollutants in soil through photocatalysis, and promote soil microbial activities through biocatalysis, thereby further improving soil environment.
In summary, the composition design of mulch films optimizes multiple properties, including thermal insulation, moisture retention, anti-aging, and puncture resistance, through the synergistic effects of base materials, additives, and functional components (such as catalysts and moisturizers), providing crucial technical support for agricultural production. However, with the increasing awareness of environmental protection, the selection of mulch film materials and the use of additives must place greater emphasis on environmental friendliness and sustainability to promote the harmonious development of agriculture and the environment.

2.3. Hazards of Plastic Mulch Films

While the properties of plastic mulch films offer substantial benefits to agricultural production, they also present a series of significant challenges. Primarily composed of high-molecular-weight polymers such as polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), mulch films exhibit stable chemical properties that render them resistant to natural degradation. Over time, these films can fragment into microplastics through processes such as ultraviolet radiation, weathering, and microbial activity. Furthermore, the increasing use of mulch films has led to the accumulation of residual film fragments in the soil, resulting in severe “white pollution.” This phenomenon poses considerable threats to soil health, crop growth, and broader ecosystems [29,30,31,32].
The environmental impacts of plastic mulch films are multifaceted, affecting soil, water, and the atmosphere [33,34]. In soil, plastic mulch films alter key properties such as bulk density, pH, structure, water evaporation rates, and enzyme activity. These changes reduce soil aeration and water retention capacity, disrupt soil physical structure, and ultimately impair microbial activity and nutrient cycling, leading to a decline in soil fertility. Moreover, the degradation of plastic mulch films into microplastics through processes such as light exposure and weathering further exacerbates soil degradation, posing risks to plant and animal health [30,35,36,37]. For instance, Lahive and co-workers found that when the concentration of polyamide (PA) microplastics in soil exceeded 90 g/kg, the reproduction of Enchytraeus crypticus was significantly inhibited [38] (Figure 1a). Similarly, Dong conducted microscopic soil experiments to investigate the effects of polystyrene (PS) and polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) microplastics on sulfur reduction–oxidation (REDOX) processes in black, grassland, and rice soils. The results demonstrated that PS and PPS microplastics interfered with sulfur reduction in soil by affecting the activities of adenosine-5′-phosphate sulfate reductase and sulfite reductase. Additionally, PS and PPS microplastics directly altered the structure of soil enzymes, leading to changes in their activity [39].
Plastic mulch can contaminate rivers, lakes, and groundwater systems when carried into water bodies through stormwater runoff or agricultural drainage. Microplastics, which are resistant to degradation in water, are readily ingested by aquatic organisms, impairing their growth and reproduction. These microplastics infiltrate plants and aquatic species (e.g., fish and shrimp) via soil and water, and upon human consumption, they may induce inflammation, cause cellular damage, disrupt endocrine function, compromise gut health, and potentially exhibit carcinogenic effects. Comprehensive research is crucial to fully evaluate their long-term impacts on the immune system, hormonal balance, and overall health [40,41,42] (Figure 1b). Simultaneously, harmful chemicals released during plastic decomposition, such as plasticizers and flame retardants, further exacerbate water pollution. Lee observed the bioaccumulation of plastic particles in the gills, intestines, and liver of Pseudobagrus fulvidraco, which may enter human tissues through the food chain [43] (Figure 1c). In addition, Wang’s research further explores the translocation and accumulation of microplastics from insects to mammals. The findings reveal that micro/nano-plastics (M/NPs) are transferred across trophic levels in the food chain. The study highlights their ability to cross biological barriers, accumulate in organisms, and potentially impact embryonic development through trophic transfer [44].
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Figure 1. Waste plastic mulch. (a) Impact on soil. Reproduced with permission from reference [38]. Copyright 2019 Elsevier. (b) Transmission route along the water cycle. Reproduced with permission from reference [40]. Copyright 2022 Elsevier. (c) Impact on living organisms. Reproduced with permission from reference [43]. Copyright 2022 Elsevier.
Figure 1. Waste plastic mulch. (a) Impact on soil. Reproduced with permission from reference [38]. Copyright 2019 Elsevier. (b) Transmission route along the water cycle. Reproduced with permission from reference [40]. Copyright 2022 Elsevier. (c) Impact on living organisms. Reproduced with permission from reference [43]. Copyright 2022 Elsevier.
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During incineration, plastic mulch films release toxic gases such as dioxins and hydrogen chloride, polluting the atmosphere and posing risks to human respiratory health, potentially causing respiratory diseases and cancer [45]. Given the severe ecological, plant, and animal hazards posed by plastic mulch films, effective management of agricultural plastic waste has become a pressing global issue.

3. Treatment Technologies for Waste Agricultural Plastic Mulch

At present, the treatment technologies for waste agricultural plastic mulch encompass methods such as melting regeneration, high-temperature hydrolysis, and direct incineration for energy recovery. Advanced treatment technologies, however, focus on converting waste plastic mulch into high-value chemicals or hydrocarbon fuels through catalytic conversion. These innovative approaches offer promising solutions for mitigating environmental pollution and advancing the development of a plastic recycling economy. Below is a brief overview of the various processing techniques (Figure 2).

3.1. Traditional Treatment Techniques

3.1.1. Mechanical Recovery

Plastic film mechanical recycling involves collection (such as manual collection or mechanical recycling), cleaning (removal of soil and weeds), crushing, washing (cold or hot water washing), drying, and granulation steps. The recovery effect is affected by the film material (such as PE or PVC), residual amount, impurity content (such as pesticide residue) and technical advancements. The recovered products can be used to make recycled plastic pots, incinerate electricity, or extract chemical raw materials [46,47]. However, current recycling technologies often cause degradation of plastic material performance, reducing their recyclability. The degradation of polymer chains during processing significantly undermines the material’s strength. This recycling method, known as “downcycling” or “downward cycling”, contrasts with catalytic conversion technology, which represents an “upcycling” approach. Despite breakthroughs in PET plastic recycling, downcycling cannot resolve the fundamental issue of progressive material deterioration [48].
Mechanical recycling of plastic mulch film reduces environmental pollution and protects land and water resources. However, it faces challenges such as high labor, material, and transportation costs, especially in rural areas. The process involves removing soil and impurities, which consumes significant amounts of water and energy, and requires costly specialized equipment for crushing, granulation, and maintenance.
It is crucial to emphasize that a significant gap exists between the idealized plastic recycling models developed in laboratories and the complexities of real-world applications. Studies reveal that this disjunction hinders the effective implementation of mechanical recycling processes in large-scale commercial waste plastic treatment [49]. This fundamental contradiction has led to a steady decline in the global adoption of mechanical recycling, despite its current dominant position. In contrast, emerging recycling systems, such as pyrolysis technology and chemical decomposition methods (such as efficient catalytic conversion), are rapidly advancing. These innovative technologies hold the potential to redefine the landscape of the plastic circular economy, offering more sustainable and efficient solutions for plastic waste management.

3.1.2. Melting Regeneration

Melting regeneration technology is currently one of the mainstream methods for recycling and reusing agricultural films. The core process involves cleaning, crushing, and drying collected agricultural films, followed by heating and melting under specific conditions to enable re-plasticization and shaping into new products. During this process, high temperatures facilitate the reorganization of the molecular structure of the used agricultural films, restoring their plasticity. The molten plastic is then extruded through an extruder and molded using dies to produce various plastic products, such as pellets, pipes, and sheets [50,51]. These recycled plastics have broad applications in agriculture, industry, and daily life. The key advantages of melting regeneration technology include its straightforward process, relatively low equipment investment, and cost-effectiveness, enabling large-scale recycling of used agricultural films. However, this technology also has limitations. Due to environmental factors during long-term use, the performance of used agricultural films degrades, resulting in recycled plastic products that are typically inferior in quality to virgin plastics and are primarily used in applications with lower performance requirements [52,53,54]. Additionally, the molten plastic can be converted into bio-oil, which serves as an asphalt binder regeneration agent, reactivating aged asphalt and even enhancing some of its properties [55,56].
Pyrolysis converts plastic mulch film into fuel oil and gas, enabling energy recovery and reducing environmental pollution of land and water. However, it requires high temperatures and significant energy, often from costly fossil fuels. The equipment is complex, with high initial investment and maintenance costs. Gases and residues need further treatment, adding expenses. Additionally, the technology’s complexity demands professional operator training, increasing labor costs. While beneficial, pyrolysis involves substantial financial and technical challenges. In addition, this method may also release harmful gases, causing environmental pollution, and equipment investment is large, and the economy is poor.

3.1.3. Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis technology thermally decomposes waste plastic films at high temperatures in an oxygen-free or low-oxygen environment (without catalysts), breaking molecular chains into smaller gaseous, liquid, and solid molecules, typically without catalysts [57,58]. These resulting products possess significant economic value and can be effectively utilized as energy sources or chemical raw materials. During the pyrolysis process, high-molecular-weight polymers, such as polyethylene found in waste plastic films, undergo thermal degradation, producing combustible gases (primarily methane and ethylene), liquid fuels (e.g., diesel and gasoline), and solid carbon black [59].
For instance, Gracida-Alvarez and his co-workers conducted secondary degradation of pyrolysis vapors from high-density polyethylene (HDPE) waste in a two-stage micro-pyrolysis reactor (TSMR) by altering temperature and vapor residence time (VRT). At low temperatures (625 °C) and short VRT (1.4 s), various gases and liquid products were produced, while at high temperatures (675 °C) and long VRT (5.6 s), mostly hydrocarbon gases and single and multi-ring aromatics were generated [60] (Figure 3a). Some researchers have also explored alternative methods by co-pyrolyzing waste plastic films with agricultural waste to produce biochar for enhancing soil fertility. For example, as shown in Figure 3b, Han prepared the optimal pyrolysis and activation conditions of MPS–char by mixing plastic film (polyethylene) and corn stover (MPS) at a ratio of 1:5 without adding a catalyst, and experimentally clarified that the pyrolysis of biochar from farmland plastic film waste could promote the growth of maize and other crops [61].
In addition, Yan and co-workers used agricultural mulch as an organic fertilizer precursor to produce thermochemical degradation products (TDPs) by percolating PEMF in nitric acid (HNO3) using a micro-glass reactor under mild conditions. The introduction of nitrogen and oxygen-containing functional groups in TDP suggests its potential as an organic soil fertilizer [62].
Pyrolysis technology enables deep resource utilization of waste plastic film, converting it into high-value energy and chemical products while minimizing environmental pollution. However, this technology also faces some challenges. The thermal cracking process consumes a large amount of energy, which results in high equipment requirements and high investment costs. So, reducing the reaction temperature by combining with other technologies (such as adding catalysts) is the way to go. In addition, some toxic and harmful gases, such as hydrogen chloride and dioxins, may be produced during the pyrolysis process, so it is necessary to be equipped with perfect exhaust gas treatment devices to ensure environmental safety.

3.1.4. Energy Recovery

Energy recovery technology can reuse resources by incinerating waste plastic film and converting its chemical energy into heat or electricity. In a specialized incinerator, waste plastic film is fully combusted with air, producing high-temperature flue gas that heats boiler water via a heat exchanger, generating steam to power turbines for electricity or directly providing heating. This technology can quickly reduce the volume of plastic film and recover energy, but the incineration process will emit carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and other pollutants, which need to be strictly controlled. If the combustion is not sufficient, it may also produce highly toxic substances such as dioxins, which endanger the environment and health [63].

3.2. Catalytic Transformation Treatment

Catalytic conversion technology, a cornerstone of modern chemical engineering, has emerged as a pivotal tool across diverse fields owing to its exceptional efficiency, selectivity, and environmentally benign characteristics. Through catalytic oxidation, reduction, and other processes, harmful substances are transformed into non-toxic or low-toxicity compounds, thereby contributing to the purification of air, water, and soil [64,65]. Furthermore, this technology facilitates the efficient utilization of fossil fuels and the advancement of renewable energy, thereby supporting the optimization and sustainable development of energy structures [66,67]. In this context, catalytic conversion has recently been developed as an innovative approach for the treatment of plastic mulch films [68,69]. By leveraging the action of catalysts, this method promotes the conversion and degradation of waste mulch films, enhancing the quality and added value of the resulting products. As such, it represents a promising strategy for achieving sustainable development and fostering a circular economy [70].
In the catalytic transformation process, it is crucial to choose the right catalyst. Different types of catalysts have significant effects on the conversion efficiency and product distribution of waste plastic film. Metal oxide and metal sulfide catalysts can promote the degradation and transformation of waste plastics to a certain extent [71,72,73]. Zeolite catalysts have unique pore structure and an acidic center, which can improve product selectivity and conversion. The efficiency of catalytic conversion and product selectivity can be further improved by optimizing the composition and structure of the catalyst [74,75].

3.2.1. Photocatalytic Treatment

The upcycling of waste plastic mulch films, typically polyolefins, into value-added chemicals using solar-powered photocatalysis is a promising strategy to achieve sustainable development. Xu used ZnS/Ga2O3 Z-type heterojunction material as a photocatalyst to efficiently convert polyethylene plastic into a syngas mixture (CO + H2). The heterojunction agent achieved a H2 formation rate of 50.15 μmol g−1 h−1 and a CO formation rate of 27.32 μmol g−1 h−1 (Figure 4a,b). A series of characterization and comparative experiments demonstrated that the formation of the heterojunction between ZnS and Ga2O3 promoted the efficient photocatalytic conversion of plastic waste to syngas and explained the mechanism of syngas production [76] (Figure 4c). This provides a reference for the photocatalytic treatment of waste polyolefin films. In addition, some people combine plasma treatment technology with photocatalytic technology to greatly reduce the photocatalytic on-demand time. For example, Jiang and his colleagues treated discarded polyolefin plastic with plasma, and then used TiO2 loaded with Pt as a photocatalyst, which can efficiently upgrade polyolefin plastic to hydrogen and gas fuel in only 4 h. More than 100 μmol g−1 h−1 of hydrogen was produced [77].
In addition, some researchers have photocatalytic degradation of waste polyolefin plastic mulch films to CO2. For example, Wen and colleagues have developed a phospho CeO2 catalyst based on organophosphate precursors for efficient photocatalytic degradation of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) without acid–base pretreatment (Figure 4d). Compared with pristine CeO2, surface phosphorylation introduces Brønsted acid sites to form carbocations on LDPE through protonation, while optimizing the band structure and enhancing light absorption and reactive oxygen generation capacity, thereby promoting C-C bond breakage of LDPE (Figure 4e). The catalyst achieved >94% carbon conversion and >99% CO2 selectivity after exposure to 50 mW/cm2 simulated sunlight for 48 h (Figure 4f). This method effectively reduces the production of microplastics and harmful gases. Moreover, CO2 can be further converted into useful chemicals or fuels by other technologies, such as carbon capture and utilization (CCU), to realize the recycling of carbon resources [78].

3.2.2. Thermocatalytic Treatment

Thermal catalysis can improve the reaction rate, control product selectivity, and enable large-scale production based on photocatalysis, which is more advantageous in some aspects [79,80]. Xu and his co-workers used HZSM-5 as the optimal catalyst for the thermocatalytic conversion of waste polyethylene film. Using a combined platform of a cone calorimeter and a tube pyrolysis furner–mass spectrometer (MS), they achieved the conversion of PE into many alkenes and aromatic hydrocarbons (AH), such as benzene, toluene, and xylene (BTX) products, thereby reducing PE plastic by 59.7% [81].
Kong explored an innovative decomposition thermocatalytic pathway based on in situ self-assembled metal nanoparticles (NPs) co-doped with microporous carbonaceous catalysts (M/PCC) for upcycling of waste plastic film. When M/PCCs with different Zn and Ni co-additions were tested, Zn50-Ni20/CSB1 (ZnCl2:50%; NiCl2:20%) (Zn-Ni/PSB) was found to promote the formation of liquid hydrocarbons and the production of high-purity H2 in the discarded plastic mulch (Figure 5a). The Zn-Ni/PSB catalyst with the highest specific surface area (671 m2/g) and microporosity (76.05%) showed the highest liquid yield (51.67 wt.%), as well as the highest carbon yield of C5-C12 hydrocarbons (45.82 C%) and C8-C16 hydrocarbons (36.90 C%) [82] (Figure 5b).
In addition to the simple thermocatalytic conversion of waste plastic mulch, some researchers have combined CO2 utilization with catalytic conversion of waste plastic mulch to synergistically improve the catalytic performance. Jung et al. used the reaction substrate, Ni/SiO2, as a thermal catalyst for spent plastic mulch film (SMF). Under the condition of CO2, the total concentration of gas obtained by catalytic pyrolysis was increased by 11.3 times compared with that by non-catalytic pyrolysis. At the same time, the conversion of hydrocarbons to H2 is also improved (Figure 5c). When CO2 is introduced as a flow gas during catalytic pyrolysis, substantial CO production is observed because CO2 acts as an oxidant and converts long-chain hydrocarbons and CO2 to CO. The formation of H2 and CO quantity is proportional to the flow of CO2 concentration, confirming that CO2 helps to improve the process of catalytic pyrolysis SMF syngas production [83] (Figure 5d).

3.2.3. Photothermal Catalytic Treatment

As is well known, photocatalytic technology integrates photocatalysis and thermal catalysis, promoting charge transfer and separation to fully leverage the advantages of thermal catalytic carriers. This effectively overcomes the limitations of single-photocatalytic processes, synergistically enhancing the restructuring performance of plastic waste [84,85]. For example, Miao and co-workers constructed an LDPE-Ru/TiO2 photothermal catalytic system, and the whole system can be heated to 200–300 °C by photothermal heating. The system efficiently cuts C-C and C-H bonds in the polymer (Figure 6a). At the same time, LDPE conversion was as high as 95.0%, far exceeding photoreduction alone. By optimizing temperature and pressure, it was converted to liquid fuel in only 3 h (86% C5-C21). The method also allows for the production of a variety of products, including high-purity methane and different liquid-phase fuels [86] (Figure 6b). Under the illumination of a full-spectrum Xe lamp or concentrated sunlight, the Ru/TiO2 catalyst undergoes localized photothermal heating, which facilitates the melting of the polymer. Ultraviolet light (λ < 365 nm) serves to activate the LDPE chains, thereby generating reactive sites conducive to the cleavage of Ru nanoparticles on the Ru/TiO2 catalyst. This elucidated mechanism underpins the effective photothermal conversion of LDPE into diminutive gaseous and liquid/waxy hydrocarbon derivatives, achieved by the harmonious exploitation of UV, visible, and near-infrared light spectra.
Han introduced a novel photothermal dechlorination-carbonization two-step reaction to convert waste PVC plastics into valuable carbon materials (Figure 6c). Outdoor experiments have substantiated the practical applicability of photothermal carbonization in the valorization of waste polyvinyl chloride plastics (Figure 6d). The experiment showed that the carbon retention rate of the two-step thermal method reached 48.9%, which was significantly higher than 13.8% of the direct carbonization method (Figure 6e). The resulting hard carbon material can be used as a potential anode material for sodium-ion batteries [87]. Through detailed techno-economic assessment (TEA) modeling for the recovery of 96,000 tons of plastic, they demonstrate that photothermal conversion using solar energy saves approximately 2.34 × 1012 kJ of electricity and reduces the carbon footprint by 261,912.2 tons compared to conventional thermal methods, offering substantial environmental benefits. This innovative technology not only enables the efficient use of energy, but also significantly improves cost-effectiveness, while bringing considerable environmental benefits, providing a greener and efficient solution for the sustainable recycling of PVC.
In addition, Chen successfully developed a copper–ruthenium superfine particle photothermal catalyst. Under a light intensity of 4.0 W/cm2, the photothermal catalyst rapidly reached temperatures exceeding 350 °C within 60 s. These properties were effectively utilized for the photothermal recovery of waste polyethylene and polyethylene terephthalate. Hydrogenolysis of LDPE was performed using engineered Cu3Ru1 superstructures dispersed on alumina nanosheets (with a ruthenium content of 2 wt.%). After 6 h of irradiation under a xenon lamp (4 W/cm2), C8-C35 liquid fuels were obtained with a yield of 87.6%. Additionally, through scaled-up experiments, complete conversion of 10 g of waste PET film was achieved, recovering approximately 9.26 g of high-value BHET with a yield of about 70%, demonstrating the robustness and scalability of the catalytic system. Furthermore, cost analysis confirmed the practical universality of the copper–ruthenium superfine particle photothermal catalytic system for converting waste plastics [88].

3.2.4. Electric/Photoelectric Catalytic Treatment

In addition to the aforementioned recycling methods, electrocatalysis and photocatalysis involve chemical reactions driven by electricity or solar energy, respectively, promoting the transfer of electrons through the electrode/electrolyte interface. These methods enable precise control of chemical reactions by using electrical potential, current density, or light to produce valuable chemical products [89,90]. However, these methods are generally used for the upcycling of polyester plastics. Although polyester plastic is rarely used in agricultural mulch film (which can be used in agricultural greenhouses), its electric/photoelectric catalytic upgrading method can provide a new perspective for the recycling of polyolefin plastic mulch films. Qi used cation vacancy engineering cobalt selenide as a bifunctional catalyst to effectively convert waste polyethylene terphenyl ester plastic into high-value succinic acid through an electrocatalytic upcycling route, achieving a Faraday efficiency of 94.0% [91]. This highlights the potential of electro/photocatalytic degradation to break plastics down into small molecules (e.g., H2O, CO2), which can be reduced to produce value-added chemicals.
We can see from the comparison in Table 2 that catalytic conversion treatments have some unique advantages over traditional regenerative technologies. They can realize the transformation of waste plastic film under relatively mild conditions, reducing energy consumption and equipment wear. By selecting appropriate catalysts and reaction conditions, the composition and structure of the products can be precisely controlled, allowing for the production of materials with specific properties and uses, which improves the added value of the waste plastic film.
However, this approach faces significant challenges. Durability is hindered by complex inactivation mechanisms (e.g., chemical poisoning, physical wear, and thermal degradation) and harsh operating conditions, while recyclability is constrained by limited regeneration efficiency, high costs, environmental impacts, and finite regeneration cycles. These issues increase economic burdens and undermine sustainability. Moving forward, breakthroughs in new materials, regeneration technologies, smart catalyst design, and circular economy models are essential to enhance catalyst performance and sustainability.
Finally, we believe that in the future, low-cost, green catalytic conversion technology for plastic waste can alleviate the global plastic pollution problem and promote the development of a circular economy.

4. The Development of New Agricultural Plastic Film

Biodegradable plastic mulch films (BDMs) are becoming increasingly popular in agriculture and are emerging as an alternative to conventional polyethylene (PE) films. These degradable plastic films can gradually degrade in the natural environment after use and do not persist for a long time like traditional plastic films, which effectively reduces soil pollution and provides strong support for sustainable agricultural development [92,93,94] (Figure 7a).
In recent years, a series of technological breakthroughs have been made in the research and development of degradable plastic films. In terms of materials, new degradable polymers are emerging, such as polylactic acid (PLA), polyhydroxyfatty acid ester (PHA), and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). These materials have good biodegradability and mechanical properties, meeting the basic needs of agricultural production [95,96,97]. For example, Yoshinakad and colleagues synthesized bio-based and water-degradable polyester amides (PEAs) from N, N’-bis (2-hydroxyethyl) brassicamide (BHEBA) with excellent degradability in water (seawater, deionized water, etc.). The results confirm the great potential of brassylated polylamides to be an environmentally friendly alternative to certain petroleum-derived commodity plastics, especially polyethylene [98]. Zhu used waste milk to produce a biodegradable mulch film (BMF), which was used as the main substrate and mixed with gelatin, tributyl citrate, ZnO, and (NH4)2SO4 to prepare a multi-nutrient slow-release biodegradable mulch film (HPBMF). The prepared HPBMF exhibits good water resistance as well as mechanical properties such as stiffness and flexibility at a low cost. At the same time, HPBMF can be degraded within 3–4 months during application, which aligns well with the crop season [99] (Figure 7b).
In the preparation process, by improving the processing technology, the uniformity and stability of the degradable plastic film were improved, and the production cost was reduced. Gao et al. used a green and simple process to synthesize lignin-based polyurethane (LPU), which was coated on low-quantity cellulose paper (CP) to obtain an economical and green composite LPU/CP mulch film. The physical strength of the film was improved, and it exhibited excellent water resistance and degradability [100] (Figure 7c). Similarly, Wang et al. developed a novel biodegradable and recyclable bio-based plastic preparation method. In this method, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and cationic polymer ionic liquid (PILCl) were used as the main raw materials and were prepared by a complexation reaction with the assistance of KNO3. This innovative process not only utilizes renewable biomass resources, but also enables material degradability and recyclability, providing a new technological approach to the development of environmentally friendly plastics [101] (Figure 7d).
These innovative degradable polymers exhibit excellent biodegradability and mechanical properties, effectively addressing the fundamental requirements of agricultural production. For instance, PLA mulch can fully degrade within just a few months under specific conditions, whereas traditional PE mulch may persist for hundreds of years without complete degradation. Moreover, the optimization of catalytic technology has significantly enhanced the synthesis efficiency and degradation rate of these materials, thereby offering robust support for the advancement of sustainable agriculture.
However, the application of degradable plastic films still faces many challenges. First, the performance of biodegradable films compared with traditional films still has gaps in aspects such as the tensile strength and weather resistance, which remains to be further improved to adapt to different environments of agricultural production [102,103]. Secondly, the high cost is an important factor restricting the promotion of degradable plastic film. In fact, degradable mulch film (about 20–40 yuan/kg) typically costs 2–3 times as much as conventional mulch film. In addition, it is difficult to precisely control the degradation conditions and rate of degradable plastic films, which may degrade too quickly or too slowly in some areas, affecting the growth and yield of crops. At the same time, challenges such as inadequate market supply, insufficient policy incentives, and deeply ingrained traditional practices further reduce farmers’ willingness to embrace this technology. Additionally, weak environmental consciousness and a lack of technical training create practical difficulties for farmers, ultimately impeding the widespread application of biodegradable plastic films.
Last but not least, the lack of uniform quality standards and testing methods for degradable plastic films, and the uneven quality of products in the market, also bring difficulties to their promotion.
Catalysts 15 00310 g007
Figure 7. (a) Degradation process of degradable plastic mulch. Reproduced with permission from reference [92]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society. (b) Preparation process and properties of HPBMF. Reproduced with permission from reference [99]. Copyright 2024 Elsevier. (c) Preparation process of composite LPU/CP film. Reproduced with permission from reference [100]. Copyright 2024 Elsevier. (d) Complexation reaction preparation of degradable plastic mulch film process. Reproduced with permission from reference [101]. Copyright 2025 Elsevier.
Figure 7. (a) Degradation process of degradable plastic mulch. Reproduced with permission from reference [92]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society. (b) Preparation process and properties of HPBMF. Reproduced with permission from reference [99]. Copyright 2024 Elsevier. (c) Preparation process of composite LPU/CP film. Reproduced with permission from reference [100]. Copyright 2024 Elsevier. (d) Complexation reaction preparation of degradable plastic mulch film process. Reproduced with permission from reference [101]. Copyright 2025 Elsevier.
Catalysts 15 00310 g007

5. Conclusions and Prospect

The wide application of plastic mulch film in agricultural production has caused serious environmental pollution and resource waste problems, and its recycling technology has become a key breakthrough in controlling agricultural non-point source pollution and promoting sustainable agricultural development. However, the traditional treatment technologies of polyolefin plastic film have significant defects in terms of environmental friendliness, which need to be improved through technological innovation. Therefore, the development of new environmentally friendly agricultural plastic films or advanced treatment technologies has become a priority. At present, widely used recycling technologies, such as melting regeneration, thermal cracking, and energy recovery, struggle to maximize the value of waste plastic mulch film resources. In this context, catalyst-based catalytic conversion technology has shown significant advantages, efficiently converting waste plastic mulch into fuels or other high value-added chemicals under relatively mild conditions, providing a new approach for the resource utilization of plastic mulch. However, there are still many challenges in catalytic transformation and upgrading, including the high cost of catalysts and insufficient selectivity of target products. The future development of waste plastic mulch treatment technology will be discussed in depth.
Agricultural plastic films are predominantly used in soil environments abundant with microorganisms. In contrast to photocatalysis, which requires light sources and catalysts, or thermal catalysis, which operates under high-temperature conditions, biocatalysis (or enzymatic catalysis) emerges as a more promising and sustainable approach. This method does not require stringent conditions but instead relies on the development of efficient and cost-effective enzymatic catalysts capable of harnessing the metabolic potential of enzymes or microorganisms to convert plastic mulch films into reusable monomers, intermediates, or high-value-added products [104]. For instance, advancements in polyethylene oxidase research hold the potential to achieve the efficient biodegradation of polyethylene mulches, transforming them into organic acids, alcohols, or fuels. This process not only mitigates plastic pollution in soil and water but also contributes to the restoration of ecological balance.
The development of low-cost, high-performance catalysts is crucial for efficiently converting plastic waste into valuable products with high selectivity. Building on the success of thermal catalysis, it is important to leverage its advantages to design efficient photothermal catalysts. These catalysts can utilize light energy to generate higher temperatures, enhancing the transformation of plastic waste and advancing sustainable resource utilization.
The advancement of efficient pretreatment technologies plays a pivotal role in the transformation and upgrading of waste plastic mulch films. Implementing suitable pretreatment methods can substantially enhance catalytic conversion efficiency, elevate product quality, lower conversion costs, and minimize environmental impact. This underscores the critical importance of pretreatment as a foundational step in optimizing the overall process of plastic waste valorization.
Since plastics are primarily composed of hydrocarbon elements, the conventional transformation pathway for waste plastic mulch has focused on conversion into fuel. However, we posit that repurposing waste plastic mulch into carbon-based adsorption materials, catalyst supports, conductive materials, and other functional products holds substantial promise for addressing environmental challenges while unlocking economic potential. Such diversified valorization strategies not only mitigate plastic pollution but also contribute to the development of sustainable materials for advanced industrial applications, thereby aligning with the principles of a circular economy.
Addressing plastic pollution demands a unified approach involving the public, governments, NGOs, research institutions, media, and global organizations. Effective management practices and rigorous legal frameworks are crucial to curbing the release of plastic waste into the environment.
Policy advocacy is essential: we must establish clear standards and certification systems to ensure material biodegradability; introduce tax incentives or subsidies to reduce production costs and boost market competitiveness; and strengthen international cooperation to create a unified global regulatory framework for addressing cross-border pollution.
In short, the development of new degradable plastics or green and low-cost catalytic recycling methods for plastic mulch film is expected to achieve efficient degradation and high value-added transformation of plastic mulch film in the future. These technologies will not only help solve the problem of plastic pollution, but also promote the development of the circular economy and green chemistry, providing important support for the sustainable development goals.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, methodology, resource investigation, writing—original draft, Y.W.; funding acquisition, writing—review and editing, Y.Y.; visualization, funding acquisition, project administration, writing—review and editing, supervision, W.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Young Talent Support Fund from Jiangsu University (5501310013), Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation (No. 2022A1515111017), the Natural Science Research Project of Universities in Jiangsu Province (24KJB610004), the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (BK20240885), and the Senior Talents Fund of Jiangsu University (5501310033).

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Figure 2. Recycling mode of discarded mulch.
Figure 2. Recycling mode of discarded mulch.
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Figure 3. (a) Schematic diagram of the two-stage micro-pyrolysis reactor and the performance of direct pyrolysis of polyethylene plastics. Reproduced with permission from reference [60]. Copyright 2018 American Chemical Society. (b) Experimental process and steps of biochar. Reproduced with permission from reference [61]. Copyright 2023 Elsevier.
Figure 3. (a) Schematic diagram of the two-stage micro-pyrolysis reactor and the performance of direct pyrolysis of polyethylene plastics. Reproduced with permission from reference [60]. Copyright 2018 American Chemical Society. (b) Experimental process and steps of biochar. Reproduced with permission from reference [61]. Copyright 2023 Elsevier.
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Figure 4. (a) Idea diagram of ZnS/Ga2O3 photocatalytic upgrading of polyethylene plastics. (b) Performance chart. (c) Mechanism diagram. Reproduced with permission from reference [76]. Copyright 2024 John Wiley and Sons. (d) Photocatalytic cracking of microparticles released from LDPE plastic wrap. (e) Photocatalytic product yields and the carbon conversion efficiency of CeO2-0.22POx. Reproduced with permission from reference [78]. (f) Performance of CeO2-0.22POx Copyright 2024 Elsevier.
Figure 4. (a) Idea diagram of ZnS/Ga2O3 photocatalytic upgrading of polyethylene plastics. (b) Performance chart. (c) Mechanism diagram. Reproduced with permission from reference [76]. Copyright 2024 John Wiley and Sons. (d) Photocatalytic cracking of microparticles released from LDPE plastic wrap. (e) Photocatalytic product yields and the carbon conversion efficiency of CeO2-0.22POx. Reproduced with permission from reference [78]. (f) Performance of CeO2-0.22POx Copyright 2024 Elsevier.
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Figure 5. (a) Reaction mechanism of Zn-Ni/PSB thermocatalytic conversion of waste polyethylene mulch film. (b) Performance chart. Reproduced with permission from reference [82]. Copyright 2025 Elsevier. (c) Idea diagram of thermocatalytic conversion of waste plastic mulch film under CO2 atmosphere. (d) Performance graph. Reproduced with permission from reference [83]. Copyright 2022 Elsevier.
Figure 5. (a) Reaction mechanism of Zn-Ni/PSB thermocatalytic conversion of waste polyethylene mulch film. (b) Performance chart. Reproduced with permission from reference [82]. Copyright 2025 Elsevier. (c) Idea diagram of thermocatalytic conversion of waste plastic mulch film under CO2 atmosphere. (d) Performance graph. Reproduced with permission from reference [83]. Copyright 2022 Elsevier.
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Figure 6. (a) Schematic diagram of the contact between Ru/TiO2 catalyst and LDPE and plastic photothermal recovery system. (b) LDPE conversion performance graph. Reproduced with permission from reference [86]. Copyright 2023 Springer International Publishing. (c) Schematic illustration of photothermal catalytic dechlorination of PVC to hard carbon material. (d) Photothermal catalytic outdoor device. (e) Comparison of carbon retention performance of the two methods. Reproduced with permission from reference [87]. Copyright 2024 American Chemical Society.
Figure 6. (a) Schematic diagram of the contact between Ru/TiO2 catalyst and LDPE and plastic photothermal recovery system. (b) LDPE conversion performance graph. Reproduced with permission from reference [86]. Copyright 2023 Springer International Publishing. (c) Schematic illustration of photothermal catalytic dechlorination of PVC to hard carbon material. (d) Photothermal catalytic outdoor device. (e) Comparison of carbon retention performance of the two methods. Reproduced with permission from reference [87]. Copyright 2024 American Chemical Society.
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Table 1. Comparison of three types of agricultural plastic mulch films.
Table 1. Comparison of three types of agricultural plastic mulch films.
PlasticTypesStructural FormulaCost (RMB/m2)DegradabilityFeaturesEnvironmental Impact
Polyethylene (PE)low-density polyethylene (LDPE)-(-CH2-CH2-)n0.3~3.5It is not degradable and takes hundreds of years to decomposeExcellent flexibility and transparencyThe relative influence among the three is small, but it can pollute water, soil, crops, climate, etc.
high-density polyethylene (HDPE)1.7~13.5High flexibility and high light transmittance, medium weather resistance
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)/-(-CH2-CHCl-)n 8~30High strength, tear resistance, high weather resistance, UV resistance, medium flexibility and light transmittanceThe most toxic plastic; it releases highly toxic gases when burned and may cause heavy metal contamination.
Polypropylene (PP)/-[-CH2-CH(CH3)-]n0.3~15High strength, tear resistance, high weather resistance, UV resistance, medium flexibility and light transmittanceIt can pollute water, soil, crops, climate, etc. At the same time, harmful substances may be released during the production process, but toxicity is low.
Note: The cost will be affected by crude oil price, supply and demand, specifications, etc.
Table 2. Comparison of the three recycling treatments.
Table 2. Comparison of the three recycling treatments.
Method of TreatmentMechanical RecoveryDirect PyrolysisCatalytic Upgrading
Factor of costCollection and transportation; cleaning and sorting; crushing and granulation.Energy cost; equipment investment; by-product treatment; technical threshold.The cost is high and benefits are limited.
Advantages and disadvantagesReuse of resources, reduces waste plastic film pollution, but it is costly and time-consuming.Energy recycling, reduces waste plastic mulch pollution, but may cause gas pollution.Quickly and effectively reduces environmental pollution, improves energy efficiency, improves product quality, reduces by-products, and yields high value-added products.
Comprehensive evaluationCatalyst cost, equipment modification, and operation complexity.The cost is the highest, but benefits are significant.The cost is high, but the long-term benefits are most significant.
The latest technologyDissolution/precipitation process.Plasma pyrolysis.Co-catalysis with other wastes;
co-catalysis (collaboration of multiple catalytic systems).
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Wan, Y.; Yang, Y.; Zhou, W. Agricultural Plastic Mulch: A Brief Review of Development, Composition and Catalytic Upcycling Strategies. Catalysts 2025, 15, 310. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15040310

AMA Style

Wan Y, Yang Y, Zhou W. Agricultural Plastic Mulch: A Brief Review of Development, Composition and Catalytic Upcycling Strategies. Catalysts. 2025; 15(4):310. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15040310

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wan, Yang, Yangyang Yang, and Weiqiang Zhou. 2025. "Agricultural Plastic Mulch: A Brief Review of Development, Composition and Catalytic Upcycling Strategies" Catalysts 15, no. 4: 310. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15040310

APA Style

Wan, Y., Yang, Y., & Zhou, W. (2025). Agricultural Plastic Mulch: A Brief Review of Development, Composition and Catalytic Upcycling Strategies. Catalysts, 15(4), 310. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15040310

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