New Generation of Osteoinductive and Antimicrobial Polycaprolactone-Based Scaffolds in Bone Tissue Engineering: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Development Processes of PCL-Based Biomaterials
Technology | Scaffold Main Features | Advantages | Open Challenges | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
ES and MES |
|
|
| [18,19,21,25,61,62,63] |
SC/PL |
|
|
| [42,43,44,45,62,64] |
TIPS and TIPS/PL |
|
|
| [46,51] |
3. Blending of PCL-Based Biomaterials with Calcium Phosphates to Allow Osteogenesis
4. Antimicrobial Properties of PCL-Based Biomaterials Loaded with Antimicrobial Agents
5. Cytocompatibility of PCL-Based Biomaterials Functionalised with Both Antimicrobials and Calcium Phosphates
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
References
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Technology | Scaffold Main Features | Advantages | Open Challenges | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Extrusion-based printing (EBP): FDM |
|
|
| [62,65,69] |
Selective laser sintering (SLS) |
|
|
| [62,67,70,71] |
Vat-photopolymerisation (SLA, DLP) |
|
|
| [70] |
Scaffold Composition | Key Findings | References |
---|---|---|
Composite multi-layer scaffold made of PCL and BCP | It had a resistant bulk (ceramic core) and a porous surface (polymer external layer), and displayed the appropriate gradient of porosity and a degradation rate | [113] |
Functionally graded 3D scaffold designed with a ceramic inner core and a PCL external layer | The different layers were closely linked and the degradation rate of the inner core revealed bioactivity | [116] |
Scaffold based on PCL and HA | The pores were uniformly distributed and HA was dispersed in the constructs, with some agglomeration | [80] |
3D-printed scaffold made of PCL and enriched with HA | The composite material revealed small spaces among pores | [111] |
PCL and HA blended in a 3D scaffold | HA in PCL-based scaffold was finely distributed with aggregates of different size | [115] |
3D scaffold based on PCL and blended with HA | The appearance of CaPs was revealed in the structure | [117] |
PCL incorporated with 1% of HA into 3D scaffold | The addition of HA to PCL provoked an increase in roughness | [118] |
Biphasic PCL/HA nanofibrous scaffold | The pores displayed a high degree of interconnection. Their diameter was about 2.4 μm | [119] |
PCL enriched with HA and fluorapatite to obtain a 3D composite scaffold | The presence of apatite particles was detected in the surface | [120] |
3D functionally graded scaffold based on PCL, gelatin, and nanohydroxyapatite | The layers were interconnected to reach a suitable porosity. An initial high degradation rate within 2 days was recorded that, thereafter, slowed | [121] |
3D functionally graded scaffold based on PCL, gelatin, and nanohydroxyapatite | It had an average pore size of 4.7 ± 1.04 μm with the uniform, and adequate deposition of nanohydroxyapatite on its surface, but the degradation in aqueous medium determined a rupture of its structure | [4] |
Scaffold prepared with PCL, HA, and chitosan | Specimen with an interconnected porosity and with the presence of HA. The deposition of an apatite layer was highlighted | [16] |
PCL and chitosan cubic-shaped scaffold | The construct presented a squared porosity (average width of 440 ± 16 μm and a height of 120 ± 5 μm) | [10] |
PCL-based scaffold with or without PLA | An increase in surface roughness was observed in pure PCL scaffold compared to that prepared with PLA or with PLA/PCL | [122] |
Cylindrical-shaped multichannel bone substitutes prepared using BCP (60 HA + 40 β-TCP) | A high bulk macro-porosity was revealed (1, 2, and 3 mm of diameter) and the compressive strength increased with the pore’s diameter | [2] |
Three types of 3D scaffolds: pure PCL, and PCL added with BCP at 20% or 30% | The scaffolds had large pore size and released calcium and phosphates over time. BCP at 30% produced fractures in the construct | [123] |
PCL-based scaffold blended with BCP (70 HA + 30 β-TCP), and added with 1.67% of silver | The 3D scaffold was featured by a highly interconnected and homogeneously distributed porosity, a homogeneous and fine dispersion of BCP, and an increased stiffness | [42] |
PCL-based scaffold blended with BCP (70 HA + 30 β-TCP), and added with essential oils | The salt-leaching process formed two types of pores (about 234–208 µm): NaCl determined squared regular pores, whereas NaNO3 produced pores with a less defined geometry. The pure PCL specimens slowly lost weight during the immersion | [43] |
PCL-based scaffold blended with BCP (70 HA + 30 β-TCP), and added with ~1% of silver | The blending of PCL with BCP provokes a faster weight loss respective to pure PCL | [44] |
PCL scaffold with deposition of β-TCP nanoparticle | FESEM analysis demonstrated the random distribution of β-TCP nanoparticles on the surface and the pores of about 300 μm. The XRD revealed the peaks related to PCL and β-TCP | [76] |
3D scaffold of PCL and β-TCP, and added or not with MgO nanoparticles | A well-defined microstructure with the pore size of ~500 μm, and the dispersion of the MgO nanoparticles was revealed | [74] |
Composite scaffold based on PCL and HA, and incorporated with tetracycline | FESEM images showed the homogeneous distribution of tetracycline on the PCL surface. A high efficiency of its encapsulation was revealed as well as a sustained release over time | [125] |
3D scaffold made of PCL and HA, and loaded with ZnO | The higher content of HA makes the constructs more fragile, whereas ZnO was presented in agglomerates | [126] |
Scaffold Composition | Microorganisms | Methods | Key Findings | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
PCL loaded with doxycycline | Escherichia coli K-12 | Agar diffusion test | The drug was successfully loaded in the scaffold and its release produced an inhibition halo of 1 cm | [127] |
PCL and HA incorporated with tetracycline | Escherichia coli (ATCC® 25922) and Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC® 25923) | Agar diffusion test | Despite the drug concentration, the inhibition halo was revealed, but it was more pronounced for S. aureus respective to E. coli | [125] |
Porous membranes of PCL and PLA added with tetracycline | Staphylococcus aureus (NCTC 10788) and Escherichia coli (NSM59) | Agar diffusion test | A pronounced antibacterial activity of the constructs up to 21 days of incubation, and a larger inhibition halo against E. coli | [128] |
PCL and β-TCP loaded with microspheres of ceftriaxone | Escherichia coli | Agar diffusion test | A sustained drug release was demonstrated with an inhibition halo of 3 cm, after 24 h of incubation | [131] |
PCL coated with PLA vancomycin-loaded microspheres | Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC® 29213) | Agar diffusion test | A relevant anti-S. aureus action was demonstrated over 28 days of incubation | [129] |
Coaxial structure based on PCL/PLGA-PVA loaded with erythromycin | Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC® 49230) | Agar diffusion test | Higher diameter of inhibition in the growth of S. aureus was revealed in relation to erythromycin concentration in the construct | [130] |
In situ-added silver nanoparticles on PLGA/PCL | Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus mutans | Agar diffusion test, FESEM images | A wider diameter of inhibition halo for S. aureus respective to S. mutans was registered, whereas both bacteria attached to the scaffold | [134] |
PCL loaded with silver | Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Candida albicans | Agar diffusion test | The antimicrobial effect was different depending on the microorganisms: C. albicans was the most susceptible to silver followed by E. coli, S. aureus, and Ps. aeruginosa | [133] |
Composites of PCL and BCP enriched with 1.67% of silver | Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC® 29213) | Agar diffusion test, adhesion assay | An inhibition halo around the specimen was shown, as well as a reduction in both adhered and planktonic staphylococci | [42] |
Composites of PCL and BCP enriched with ~1% of silver | Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC® 29213), Staphylococcus epidermidis (ATCC® 35984), and Escherichia coli (ATCC® 25922) | Agar diffusion test, adhesion assay, FESEM images | An inhibition halo around the silver-enriched sample was shown. A reduction in adherent and planktonic bacteria, and an alteration in their morphology, was revealed. No biofilm formation was shown on the enriched scaffold | [44] |
Composites of PCL and BCP enriched with ~1% of silver | Candida albicans (ATCC® 10231) and C. auris (clinical isolate) | Agar diffusion test, adhesion assay, FESEM images | An inhibition halo around the silver-enriched sample was shown for both strains. A reduction in adherent and planktonic yeasts and a filamentous morphology were revealed. No biofilm formation was shown on the enriched scaffold | [45] |
PCL and HA loaded with ZnO | Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC® 25923) | Contact with the scaffolds | The release of Zn reduced S. aureus load when placed in contact with the scaffold | [126] |
Composite 3D membrane of PCL blended with ZnO (from 1% to 7%) | Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC® 29923) and Escherichia coli (ATCC® 25922) | Agar diffusion test, adhesion assay, FESEM images | Good antibacterial activity on S. aureus and E. coli, and a reduction in their adhesion to the construct especially at 7% of ZnO | [40] |
ZnO nanoparticles added in PCL | Streptococcus mutans (KCOM 1504) and Porphyromonas gingivalis (KCOM 2804) | Contact with the scaffolds | No significant differences in the bacterial load were obtained by varying the construct composition | [135] |
PCL reinforced with copper | Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli | Agar diffusion test | S. aureus (Gram-positive) was more susceptible to copper activity compared to E. coli (Gram-negative) | [30] |
PCL and gelatin supplemented with chrysin | Acinetobacter baumannii (ATCC® BAA-747), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC® 27853), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC® 6538), and Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC® 13048) | Agar diffusion test and live/death assay | The scaffold inhibited A. baumannii, Ps. aeruginosa, S. aureus, and E. faecalis growth | [142] |
CaPs enriched with vanillin | Escherichia coli (DH5α) | CFU count after contact with the scaffolds | A reduction in the CFU of E. coli only in vanillin presence, as well as an altered morphology of the bacterium | [143] |
PCL enriched with 0%, 2%, 4%, and 8% of clove and red thyme | Candida tropicalis clinical isolates | Biofilm quantification by crystal violet | The biofilm formation of C. tropicalis clinical strains was inhibited when the concentration of the EOs was at 4% | [144] |
PCL with cinnamon or thyme at 30%, 40%, and 50% | Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC® 29213), Staphylococcus epidermidis (ATCC® 35984), and Escherichia coli (ATCC® 25922) | Agar diffusion test, adhesion assay, FESEM images | All the concentrations of EOs were able to inhibit the bacteria in growth, adhesion, and biofilm formation. The EO presence modified the bacterial morphology as well | [43] |
PCL/PLA enriched with HA and Nigella sativa oil at 15, 18, and 20 wt% | Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli | Agar diffusion test | When Nigella sativa was added, the antibacterial activity was obtained only towards S. aureus since E. coli displayed a natural resistance to this compound | [25] |
PCL with graphene oxide at 5% and 7.5% | Staphylococcus epidermidis (ATCC® 35984) and Escherichia coli (ATCC® 25922) | Live/death assay | The presence of GO increased the number of S. epidermidis and E. coli dead cells, which was more pronounced at 7.5% of GO | [8] |
PCL with chitosan with different molecular weight | Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC® 6538) and S. epidermidis (ET13) | Adhesion assay and biofilm formation | The addition of chitosan reduced adhesion and biofilm formation of both staphylococci | [10] |
Scaffold Composition | Cells | Key Findings | References |
---|---|---|---|
PCL with CaPs and gelatin | Mesenchymal stem cells | Cells were not impaired in their viability and proliferation, and non-toxic products were released by the scaffold | [121] |
PCL enriched with HA and ZnO (1% w/w) | Mesenchymal stem cells | Cells expressed osteodifferentiation markers and a high calcium deposition was detected in HA presence. Cells colonised the scaffold and differentiated in osteoblasts | [149] |
PCL enriched with HA | Mesenchymal stem cells | Cells were anchored and proliferated into the scaffold | [111] |
PCL with silica microcapsules | Mesenchymal stem cells | Cells lived in, adhered to, and proliferated into the construct | [147] |
PCL functionalised with different concentration of HA | Mesenchymal stem cells | Cells were not hampered in their viability. The greater HA concentration (7%) promoted a superior cell attachment. The cells produced high early-stage differentiation marker on PCL with HA | [120] |
PCL/β-TCP or PCL/β-TCP with nano-MgO | Bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells | Alizarin red S staining revealed the osteoinduction of cells. These cells displayed a long-term viability in MgO presence, as well as an increase in their ALP activity | [74] |
PCL coated with PLA vancomycin-loaded microspheres | Rabbit bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells | Eukaryotic cells increased in their amount over time, and some of them, after the attachment, secreted matrix | [129] |
Coaxial structure based on PCL/PLGA-PVA loaded with erythromycin | Rat bone marrow stromal cells | Cell growth augmented at erythromycin concentration of 100 μg/mL, but ALP activity decreased at a drug concentration of 500 and 1000 μg/mL | [130] |
PCL enriched with different percentages of graphene oxide | Human foreskin fibroblast (HFF-1) cells | Cells adhered to and spread into the construct, for up to 14 days of incubation | [8] |
PCL with gelatin and graphene oxide (1% or 2%) | Human gingival mesenchymal stem cells | The scaffold promoted cell adhesion and proliferation | [15] |
PCL coated with chitosan, gelatin, and bioactive glass | Fibroblast cells (MG-63) | Human cells were not impaired in viability and proliferation, and the coating enhanced their calcium deposition | [54] |
PCL/PLA enriched with gelatin and taurine | Fibroblast cells (MG-63) | The cells were not compromised in their viability and proliferation, after 24 and 72 h | [53] |
PCL/PLA and HA, enriched with black curcumin essential oil at increasing concentrations | Human fibroblast cells (CCD-1072-SK) | The oil presence reduced the viability of cells after 24 h of incubation; a lower effect was revealed after 48 h | [25] |
Cubic-shaped PCL and chitosan | Mouse murine fibroblast cells (L929) | Cells displayed a higher viability and maintained their phenotype | [10] |
Composites of PCL and HA incorporated with tetracycline | Fibroblast cells (L929) | Cells were viable and the tetracycline concentration did not affect their viability | [125] |
PCL | Mouse murine fibroblast cells (L929) | Cells were not impaired in their viability and morphology, and they preserved the spherical shape | [122] |
CaPs enriched with vanillin | Fibroblast-like cells (ATCC® L929) and human osteoblast-like cells (ATCC® MG-63) | Fibroblasts were not impaired in viability when vanillin was present and were uniformly distributed. Also, the viability of osteoblasts was promoted within a short time of incubation | [143] |
PCL with β-TCP nanoparticle deposition | Pre-osteoblasts (MC3T3-E1) | Cells showed high viability, proliferation, and adhesion as well as an increase in ALP activity and mineralisation | [76] |
Composites based on PCL and Zn (at 1, 2, or 3 wt%) | Pre-osteoblasts (MC3T3-E1) | A greater number of live cells was recorded at 2–3 wt% of Zn respective to pure PCL or the one with 1 wt% of Zn | [86] |
PCL with the copolymer Inulin-g-poly(D,L)lactide | Human fibroblasts (ATCC® MRC-5-CCL-171) and human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells | An adequate cytocompatibility towards fibroblasts was proved. Additionally, a 100% viability of human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells and their attachment to the biomaterial surface was revealed, as well as their high production of differentiation markers | [124] |
PCL loaded with silver | Human dermal fibroblasts | High cytocompatibility of PCL added with silver but only at low concentrations (from 2.5% to 1%) | [133] |
Pure PCL or PCL blended with BCP at 20% or 30% | Osteoblast cell lines (MC3T3-E1, subclone 4) | Cells attached and proliferated with multi-layers but also differentiated as a result of an increase in ALP activity and in OCN gene expression | [123] |
Composites of PLA and PCL | Osteoblast cell lines (MC3T3-E1, subclone 4) | Cells proliferated in the scaffold, while displaying a good cytocompatibility, at 2 and 3 days of incubation | [47] |
ZnO nanoparticles added in PCL constructs | Osteoblast cell lines (MC3T3-E1, subclone 4) | No significant difference in the viability of cells was observed for pure PCL compared to the modified one | [135] |
In situ-added silver nanoparticles on PLGA/PCL scaffolds | Osteoblast cell lines (MC3T3-E1, subclone 14) | Cells cultured with the scaffolds reported higher proliferative capability when silver was at the lowest concentration. FESEM images showed cell attachment to the scaffolds as well as the presence of extended filopodia. Furthermore, an increase in ALP and mineralisation was demonstrated | [134] |
PCL reinforced with copper | Human osteoblastic-like cells (MG63) and mouse mesenchymal stem cells | Mesenchymal stem cells were not impaired in either viability or migratory capability. Also, they showed increased expression of osteoblast differentiation markers, as well as calcium deposition | [30] |
PCL and HA loaded with ZnO | Human foetal osteoblast cell line (HFOb 1.19) | Zn presence enhanced ALP activity and promoted cells’ calcium deposition. However, it reduced their viability | [126] |
PCL–chitosan enriched with Zn at increasing concentrations | Mouse fibroblast cell (NIH-3T3 lines) | Only the lower Zn concentrations (10 and 20) allowed a 100% viability of cells with an increase in cellular attachment and proliferation | [150] |
PCL blended with BCP and enriched with silver at 1.67% or essential oils | Human osteosarcoma cell—Saos-2 | Specimens were not toxic for osteoblasts and the addition of BCP did not impair their viability. Cells adhered, proliferated, and did not alter their morphology. Silver at 1.67% impaired cell viability, as well as essential oils at 40–50% | [42,43] |
PCL and β-TCP loaded with ceftriaxone microspheres | Human osteosarcoma cell—Saos-2 | An increased number of viable cells was determined within 28 days of incubation, with the attachment and spreading of osteoblasts | [131] |
PCL blended with BCP and enriched with silver at ~1% | Human osteosarcoma cell—Saos-2 | Pure PCL was not toxic for Saos-2 cells, whereas only the lowest silver concentration allowed cellular survival and proliferation | [44] |
PCL and blended with BCP, and enriched with silver at ~1% | Human osteosarcoma cell—Saos-2 | The scaffolds were able to promote calcium deposition by SaoS-2 cells | [45] |
PCL and HA at different percentages | Human osteoblast cell line (MG-63) | The biomaterial was non-toxic and permitted the colonisation by the cells, which maintained their spherical shape. Their calcium deposition was also demonstrated | [80] |
PCL and HA at increasing percentages | Human osteoblasts | Cells proliferated into, attached to, and covered the surface, while displaying a flat poliedric morphology | [115] |
PCL blended with HA | Human osteoblast cell line (MG-63) | Cells successfully proliferated, deposed calcium, and upregulated the expression of genes involved in differentiation, mainly in HA presence | [117] |
PCL blended with 1% of HA | Human osteoblasts (HOB-Promocell C-12720) | HA addition increased the viability, proliferation, and calcium deposition of human osteoblasts, which were featured by filopodia | [118] |
PCL, HA, and chitosan | Human osteosarcoma cells (MG-63) | Osteoblasts were viable and their proliferation increased proportionally to HA concentration. Cells expressed different genes involved in osteogenesis | [16] |
PCL, gelatin, and nanohydroxyapatite | Human osteoblasts | Cells increased their viability and proliferation and displayed a polygonal-shaped morphology | [4] |
Biphasic PCL/HA nanofibrous scaffold | Immortalised myoblast cell line (C2C12) | Cells attached, spread, and increased ALP activity mainly when HA was added | [119] |
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Coppola, B.; Menotti, F.; Longo, F.; Banche, G.; Mandras, N.; Palmero, P.; Allizond, V. New Generation of Osteoinductive and Antimicrobial Polycaprolactone-Based Scaffolds in Bone Tissue Engineering: A Review. Polymers 2024, 16, 1668. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121668
Coppola B, Menotti F, Longo F, Banche G, Mandras N, Palmero P, Allizond V. New Generation of Osteoinductive and Antimicrobial Polycaprolactone-Based Scaffolds in Bone Tissue Engineering: A Review. Polymers. 2024; 16(12):1668. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121668
Chicago/Turabian StyleCoppola, Bartolomeo, Francesca Menotti, Fabio Longo, Giuliana Banche, Narcisa Mandras, Paola Palmero, and Valeria Allizond. 2024. "New Generation of Osteoinductive and Antimicrobial Polycaprolactone-Based Scaffolds in Bone Tissue Engineering: A Review" Polymers 16, no. 12: 1668. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121668