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Volume 18
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Polymers, Volume 18, Issue 9 (May-1 2026) – 136 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Polymer-derived biochar catalysts enabled efficient solar-driven degradation of dye pollutants through heterogeneous Fenton-like reactions under sunlight. By integrating waste plastics with biomass-derived carbon materials, biorefining, and solar energy, this work highlights a sustainable strategy for catalytic water decontamination. View this paper
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16 pages, 1624 KB  
Article
Layer Thickness Effects on the Ageing Performance and Mould Resistance of Polyurethane-Coated Beech Wood
by Gabriela Slabejová and Zuzana Vidholdová
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1145; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091145 - 6 May 2026
Viewed by 627
Abstract
The paper deals with the optical stability and biological resistance of solvent-based polyurethane and water-based polyurethane–acrylate finishes intended for interior use, applied on beech wood with mature wood and false heartwood. Optical stability was assessed through colour and gloss measurements. The surface finishes [...] Read more.
The paper deals with the optical stability and biological resistance of solvent-based polyurethane and water-based polyurethane–acrylate finishes intended for interior use, applied on beech wood with mature wood and false heartwood. Optical stability was assessed through colour and gloss measurements. The surface finishes were applied in one (I), two (II), and three (III) layers. Natural ageing was carried out under indoor conditions with exposure to natural daylight behind a glass window. Colour and gloss measurements were performed after 30, 150, and 300 days of exposure. The development of mould growth activity (GAM) during 21-day exposure was assessed on untreated and coated beech wood with different coating thicknesses. A significant colour difference in the solvent-based polyurethane finish on both mature wood and false heartwood occurred after 30 days of natural ageing. The colour difference in the water-based polyurethane-acrylate finish on both mature wood and false heartwood increased with exposure time. The solvent-based polyurethane finish with three layers applied to false heartwood showed reduced colour difference (by 62.5%). Natural ageing under interior conditions did not significantly affect the gloss of the matte surface for either finish on both mature wood and false heartwood. The degree of mould growth decreased with an increasing number of coating layers for both polyurethane and polyurethane-acrylate finishes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Life Cycle and Utilization of Lignocellulosic Materials)
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26 pages, 15293 KB  
Article
Development and Characterization of Thermomechanically Treated and Untreated Banana Rachis Fiber/PLA Composites for Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing
by Elena Monzón, Pablo Bordón, Quim Tarrés, Mario Monzón and Rubén Paz
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1144; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091144 - 6 May 2026
Viewed by 599
Abstract
In this study, a biodegradable composite based on PLA reinforced with banana rachis fiber—derived from agricultural waste and forming the structural core of banana bunches—is developed. The fibers are evaluated with and without thermomechanical processing to enhance the properties of parts produced through [...] Read more.
In this study, a biodegradable composite based on PLA reinforced with banana rachis fiber—derived from agricultural waste and forming the structural core of banana bunches—is developed. The fibers are evaluated with and without thermomechanical processing to enhance the properties of parts produced through material extrusion additive manufacturing (MEX), a technology with a screw feeding system. A preliminary study of the additive manufacturing process is conducted to ensure adequate processability of the matrix during the process. In addition, different composite formulations (0, 5, 10 and 15 wt.% fiber) are analyzed through morphological, thermal (TGA and DSC), rheological, and mechanical characterization, complemented by SEM analysis. This comprehensive characterization revealed that the incorporation of WTP fibers served to reinforce the PLA matrix for the tensile modulus, from 2273.54 ± 123.66 MPa to 2612.51 ± 95.16 MPa with 15% of WTP fiber. A similar trend was observed for the flexural modulus, which increased from 2456 ± 61.16 MPa in the neat PLA to 3189.68 ± 52.24 MPa for the PLA-15% WTP composite. The results demonstrate the feasibility of the process and the production of parts with acceptable quality under appropriate manufacturing conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)
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19 pages, 1559 KB  
Article
Xylan-Polyvinyl Alcohol Biopolymer Films Incorporated with Zanthoxylum rhoifolium Lam. Extract: Development, Characterization, and Antimicrobial Activity for Active Food Packaging
by Janine Siqueira Nunes, Brunna Emanuelly Guedes de Oliveira, Fernanda Matias Cariri Marques, Abrahão Alves de Oliveira, Filho and Elquio Eleamen Oliveira
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1143; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091143 - 6 May 2026
Viewed by 513
Abstract
This study aimed to develop and characterize biodegradable films based on xylan and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), incorporated with ethanolic extract of Zanthoxylum rhoifolium Lam., for application in active food packaging. A Box–Behnken experimental design was employed to optimize the concentrations of xylan, PVA, [...] Read more.
This study aimed to develop and characterize biodegradable films based on xylan and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), incorporated with ethanolic extract of Zanthoxylum rhoifolium Lam., for application in active food packaging. A Box–Behnken experimental design was employed to optimize the concentrations of xylan, PVA, and glycerol, evaluating the mechanical properties of the films. The results indicated that glycerol reduced tensile strength and increased elongation at break, while higher concentrations of xylan and PVA promoted an increase in mechanical strength. FTIR and XRD analyses reveal structural change without the formation of new chemical structures. The Z. rhoifolium extract exhibited antibacterial activity with a minimum inhibitory concentration of 31.5 µg/mL for Klebsiella pneumoniae, increasing to 1000 µg/mL for Enterococcus faecium, Enterobacter cloacae, and Escherichia coli. In addition, hemolytic activity exceeded 80% at concentrations ≥ 1000 µg/mL, whereas concentrations up to 500 µg/mL can be considered safe, as hemolysis remained below 40%. The films incorporated with the extract showed antimicrobial activity, with emphasis on the formulation containing 60 mg of extract, which exhibited inhibition zones of up to 16 mm against Escherichia coli and 12 mm against Enterococcus faecalis. Thus, the results highlight the potential of functionalized xylan/PVA films as sustainable materials for the development of active packaging. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Nanocomposites and Nanoparticles: Preparation and Applications)
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37 pages, 3430 KB  
Review
NIR Spectroscopy for Non-Destructive Prediction of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Global Warming Potential by Biomass Combustion
by Panmanas Sirisomboon, Prakash Gyawali, Jetsada Posom, Ravipat Lapcharoensuk, Bim Prasad Shrestha and Axel Funke
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1142; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091142 - 6 May 2026
Viewed by 973
Abstract
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from biomass combustion include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), which cause climate change and global warming. By measuring GHG emissions by biomass combustion, a potent protocol for the calculation [...] Read more.
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from biomass combustion include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), which cause climate change and global warming. By measuring GHG emissions by biomass combustion, a potent protocol for the calculation of global warming potential (GWP), which is how much the global temperature has risen due to combustion processes, can be achieved, contributing to determining the mean reduction in global temperature rise and fostering a transition towards more sustainable energy systems. Additionally, warning can be given of the GHG and GWP risks associated with different species of biomass. This review includes the GHG emissions and GWP of biomass combustion and their measurement and estimation directly through biomass sample combustion, using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and satellite measurements of radiation interacting with atmospheric gases, or satellite-derived data and calculations according to IPCC guidelines. In addition, the relationship of lignocellulosic compounds and elements in biomass to HHV and GHG emissions is described. The key mechanism of molecular vibration of hydrogen bonds in biomass caused by NIR radiation related to GHG emissions is revealed and recorded regarding the possibility of using NIR spectroscopy for the prediction of GHG emissions and GWP. Calculation examples for sugarcane bagasse and other biomass species are shown. The comparative advantages and limitations of NIR spectroscopy with respect to other methods are included. These factors lead to elucidation of the possibility of using NIR spectroscopy for non-destructive prediction of GHG emissions. In this review, the feasibility of using NIR spectroscopy to evaluate GHG emissions, GWP and emission factors (EFs) as an alternative to IPCC estimation methods related to climate change by biomass combustion is confirmed. NIR spectroscopy is a novel methodology for predicting GHG emissions and GWP directly from intact chip or powder biomass spectral data without explicit gas measurement. This article records the essential spectroscopic knowledge of biomass polymer valorization that is of value in polymer science. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Environmentally Friendly Polymeric Materials and Their Applications, 2nd Edition)
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21 pages, 2228 KB  
Article
Quantitative Kinetic Modeling of Redox-Initiated Graft Copolymerization of MMA and Styrene onto Natural Rubber Latex
by Wanvimon Arayapranee and Weerawat Patthaveekongka
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1141; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091141 - 6 May 2026
Viewed by 685
Abstract
This study develops a quantitative kinetic framework for graft copolymerization of methyl methacrylate (MMA) and styrene (ST) onto natural rubber latex (NRL), with emphasis on Redox initiation and Interfacial polymerization in a multiphase system. Experiments were conducted using a cumene hydroperoxide/tetraethylenepentamine (CHPO/TEPA) system. [...] Read more.
This study develops a quantitative kinetic framework for graft copolymerization of methyl methacrylate (MMA) and styrene (ST) onto natural rubber latex (NRL), with emphasis on Redox initiation and Interfacial polymerization in a multiphase system. Experiments were conducted using a cumene hydroperoxide/tetraethylenepentamine (CHPO/TEPA) system. Core–shell particles, consisting of a soft NR core and a rigid poly(vinyl monomer) shell, were obtained at 40–60 °C with initiator concentrations of 0.0051–0.0205 mol L−1 and monomer concentrations of 0.39–0.83 mol L−1. Radical generation occurs predominantly at the aqueous rubber interface, where monomer partitioning takes place between phases. This leads to simultaneous homopolymerization in the aqueous phase, while grafting occurs on the rubber backbone. Overall conversion (xp), graft conversion (xg), and grafting efficiency were determined gravimetrically, while morphology was confirmed by FTIR and TEM. The conversion profiles show nonlinear behavior consistent with power-law kinetics, allowing formulation of rate expressions for overall polymerization rate (Rp) and grafting rate (Rg). Reaction order and Arrhenius analyses indicate fractional, heterogeneous behavior characteristic of multiphase reaction kinetics. Styrene shows lower activation energy, whereas MMA exhibits higher collision frequency. The model reproduces experimental trends well (R2 up to 0.95) and provides insight into propagation–grafting competition in natural rubber latex systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Polymerization and Kinetic Studies)
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16 pages, 3480 KB  
Article
Designing Soft and Transparent Films Based on Multi-Phase Polypropylene Copolymers and Styrene Block Copolymers
by Markus Gahleitner, Dietrich Gloger, Katja Klimke, Martina Sandholzer and Jingbo Wang
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1140; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091140 - 6 May 2026
Viewed by 766
Abstract
Concerns about the environmental and health impacts of plasticized poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC), from plasticizer loss to microplastic formation, have created a clear demand to find alternative packaging materials for medical and pharmaceutical use. As a possible polyolefin-based alternative, we blended polypropylene–ethylene copolymers [...] Read more.
Concerns about the environmental and health impacts of plasticized poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC), from plasticizer loss to microplastic formation, have created a clear demand to find alternative packaging materials for medical and pharmaceutical use. As a possible polyolefin-based alternative, we blended polypropylene–ethylene copolymers with different ethylene content-controlled phase structures with styrene–ethylene/butylene–styrene block copolymer (SEBS), as modifier. SEBS is elastomeric and performs mechanically like a cross-linked rubber due to its unique microphase-separated morphology of hard spherical polystyrene (PS) domains dispersed in the soft elastomeric ethylene-butylene copolymer (EB) phase. Tests with injection-molded samples and cast films demonstrated promising combinations of flexibility, durability, and transparency—qualities essential for soft medical packaging like infusion pouches and blow–fill–seal bottles. For the desired level of flexibility (reflected by a flexural modulus of 150–250 MPa), blends with two random-heterophasic (RAHECO) copolymers achieved the lower limit with only 15–25 wt.-% SEBS, compared to the 37 wt.-% needed for a single-phase random copolymer (RACO). These blends also exhibited greater toughness and excellent transparency. In contrast, a standard impact copolymer (HECO), with its more crystalline matrix, required a higher modifier content of 45 wt.-% SEBS. Film morphology analysis indicated a gradual shift in disperse phase structure and orientation, leading to phase inversion at the highest SEBS content without negatively affecting transparency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)
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19 pages, 15275 KB  
Article
Mesoscopic Modeling of Fracture in Heterogeneous Bituminous Polymer Composites: Coupling Random Aggregate Distribution with Bilinear Cohesive Zone Models
by Wenjing Li, Hang Gao, Linyu Xie, Zhifei Tan and Peng Cao
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1139; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091139 - 6 May 2026
Viewed by 589
Abstract
The fracture of bituminous polymer composites is fundamentally dictated by microstructural heterogeneity and the complex viscoelasticity of the asphalt matrix. This study develops a robust numerical framework coupling a random polygonal aggregate distribution algorithm with a bilinear cohesive zone model (CZM) to simulate [...] Read more.
The fracture of bituminous polymer composites is fundamentally dictated by microstructural heterogeneity and the complex viscoelasticity of the asphalt matrix. This study develops a robust numerical framework coupling a random polygonal aggregate distribution algorithm with a bilinear cohesive zone model (CZM) to simulate fracture mechanics in heterogeneous asphalt-based composites. A key feature of the model is the explicit accounting for the stochastic distribution of the coarse aggregate and the time-dependent mechanical response of the fine aggregate matrix (FAM). Following experimental validation via frequency sweep and semi-circular bending (SCB) tests, a multi-scale parametric analysis was conducted to quantify the impacts of aggregate gradation, volume fraction, and shape. Results demonstrate that mixtures with high percentages of large-sized aggregates effectively delay macroscopic fracture by increasing the energy dissipation required for cracks to bypass the aggregate phase. While increasing the volume fraction of aggregates improves peak strength, it simultaneously accelerates post-peak load deterioration and reduces total fracture work, indicating a critical loss in the composite’s deformation capacity. Furthermore, particles with higher angularity provide superior blocking effects compared to rounded counterparts. This research offers a high-efficiency computational tool for the structural optimization of highly filled composites and provides critical insights into their internal stress states and macroscopic fracture mechanics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)
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18 pages, 7270 KB  
Article
Enhancing Energy Absorption in PLA Prints Through Post-Thermal Treatment
by Roberto Orduz, Brayan Murgas, Sergio G. Torres-Cedillo, Jacinto Cortés-Pérez and Moises Jimenez-Martinez
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1138; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091138 - 6 May 2026
Viewed by 684
Abstract
Energy absorption is a pivotal factor in impact mitigation, especially in engineering applications that demand lightweight and efficient mechanical absorbers. Traditionally, crash boxes are manufactured using metallic materials; however, advancements in additive manufacturing present new opportunities for producing lightweight prototypes quickly, without the [...] Read more.
Energy absorption is a pivotal factor in impact mitigation, especially in engineering applications that demand lightweight and efficient mechanical absorbers. Traditionally, crash boxes are manufactured using metallic materials; however, advancements in additive manufacturing present new opportunities for producing lightweight prototypes quickly, without the need for specialized tooling. This study explores the potential of 3D-printed polylactic acid (PLA) components with tailored stiffness to optimize energy absorption performance. By combining material properties, manufacturing parameters, and design strategies, varying mechanical strengths were achieved. Furthermore, the performance of the best combination was enhanced through post-processing via thermal treatment, resulting in improved crushing metrics. Experimental results revealed a 33% increase in energy absorption for honeycomb structures with variable thickness designs, demonstrating the benefits of tailored stiffness distribution. These findings highlight the promise of variable-thickness 3D-printed composites as highly effective and customizable energy absorbers, offering innovative solutions for micromobility and other engineering applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Polymers: Design and Applications)
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18 pages, 2654 KB  
Article
Thermal Decomposition Characteristics of Silicone Rubber in In-Service Power Equipment: A Study Combining Experiments and Molecular Simulations
by Jiaming Yan, Runmiao Shi, Zhijun An, Haoran Meng, Xinhan Qiao and Wenyu Ye
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1137; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091137 - 6 May 2026
Viewed by 564
Abstract
To investigate the thermal decomposition characteristics of high-temperature vulcanized silicone rubber (HTV) and liquid silicone rubber (LSR) under different aging conditions, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and thermogravimetric analysis (TG) were employed to characterize the surface microstructure and chemical properties of silicone rubber samples [...] Read more.
To investigate the thermal decomposition characteristics of high-temperature vulcanized silicone rubber (HTV) and liquid silicone rubber (LSR) under different aging conditions, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and thermogravimetric analysis (TG) were employed to characterize the surface microstructure and chemical properties of silicone rubber samples that had been in service for 15 years. The influence of aging degree on the thermal stability of silicone rubber was initially investigated. ReaxFF-based reactive molecular dynamics simulations were conducted to analyze the decomposition pathways of silicone rubber under high-temperature conditions, as well as the dynamic evolution of decomposition products. In addition, key parameters—including glass transition temperature, mean square displacement, cohesive energy density, and free volume fraction—were calculated before and after decomposition using the Materials Studio platform. The results indicate that LSR exhibits higher thermal stability than HTV, while the thermal stability of both materials decreases after thermal decomposition. Furthermore, the variation in thermal stability was discussed based on these parameters from the perspectives of molecular mobility and intermolecular interactions. This research can provide a reference for the safety operation assessment, aging status determination, and high-temperature service reliability design of silicone rubber insulating materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Networks and Gels)
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29 pages, 4444 KB  
Article
Design and Application of a Sawdust–Alginate Biocomposite for Sustainable Cationic Dyes Removal from Aqueous Solutions
by Narcis-Teodor Niță, Elena-Mirela Suceveanu, Florin Marian Nedeff, Lidia Favier, Eugen Herghelegiu and Lăcrămioara Rusu
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1136; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091136 - 5 May 2026
Viewed by 861
Abstract
This study investigates a novel biocomposite material developed by immobilizing sawdust within a calcium alginate matrix (SDA 5%) for the removal of dyes from aqueous solutions. The material was synthesized and comprehensively characterized using FTIR, SEM, and EDS analyses and the pHpzc [...] Read more.
This study investigates a novel biocomposite material developed by immobilizing sawdust within a calcium alginate matrix (SDA 5%) for the removal of dyes from aqueous solutions. The material was synthesized and comprehensively characterized using FTIR, SEM, and EDS analyses and the pHpzc drift method. Laboratory-scale experiments were performed to evaluate its performance in removing Malachite Green (MG) under varying operational conditions, including initial dye concentration (10–50 mg/L), pH (3–6), and biosorbent dosage (1–6 g/L). At pH 6 and a biosorbent dose of 3 g/L, under constant agitation (130 rpm), SDA 5% achieved removal efficiencies exceeding 95% across all tested MG concentrations. Furthermore, the biosorption capacity increased with increasing initial dye concentration, reaching a maximum value of 15.93 mg/g at an initial MG concentration of 50 mg/L. Nonlinear kinetic modelling revealed that the pseudo-second-order model best described the biosorption process, while equilibrium analysis showed that the Hill and Sips nonlinear isotherm models, followed by Temkin, provided the most accurate fit to the experimental data. These results demonstrate the high biosorption capacity and favorable interaction between MG molecules and the biocomposite surface. Overall, the study highlights sawdust-alginate biocomposites as sustainable, low-cost, and environmentally friendly biosorbents with significant potential for practical wastewater treatment applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Materials for Ecological and Environmental Applications)
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17 pages, 3346 KB  
Article
Investigation of Residual Stresses in Extruded Thermoplastic PE-RT Pipes
by Arun Biradar and Pierre Mertiny
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1135; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091135 - 5 May 2026
Viewed by 745
Abstract
Polyethylene of Raised Temperature resistance (PE-RT) is a versatile polymer with an enhanced ability to withstand higher temperatures than other standard polyethylene-derived materials. The application scope of PE-RT pipes extends across a broad range of residential and industrial uses. However, the inherent residual [...] Read more.
Polyethylene of Raised Temperature resistance (PE-RT) is a versatile polymer with an enhanced ability to withstand higher temperatures than other standard polyethylene-derived materials. The application scope of PE-RT pipes extends across a broad range of residential and industrial uses. However, the inherent residual stresses developed during the fabrication processes of these pipes pose a significant challenge to their service performance. Moreover, the technical literature on residual stresses in PE-RT pipes is scarce. The investigations presented in this paper address this scientific and technical gap by experimentally quantifying the residual stresses present in different sizes of PE-RT pipes manufactured at the same plant. The slitting method was employed as the primary experimental procedure in these investigations. In addition to establishing experimental processes, this study aims to mitigate residual stresses in PE-RT pipes by investigating their sensitivity to varying annealing temperatures for one selected pipe size. Subsequently, the optimal annealing temperature (115 °C) was applied to the remaining pipe sizes to determine its efficacy in residual stress mitigation. Through the implementation of these procedures, the circumferential residual stresses in PE-RT pipes subjected to annealing at 115 °C were significantly reduced, with a minimum decrease of 78%. Furthermore, the longitudinal residual stresses were substantially diminished, reaching a state of near-complete elimination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Thermal Behaviour of Polymers)
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28 pages, 4139 KB  
Article
Enhancement of the Solubility and Dissolution Profile of Rivaroxaban by the Antisolvent Precipitation Technique: A Promising Approach
by Claudia Maria Benga, Emma Adriana Ozon, Adina Magdalena Musuc, Valentina Anuța, Iulian Sârbu, Vasile-Adrian Surdu, Florina Teodorescu, Adriana Rusu, Lăcrămioara Popa, Mihaela Violeta Ghica, Abhay Chandak and Cristina Elena Dinu Pîrvu
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1134; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091134 - 5 May 2026
Viewed by 787
Abstract
The development of new pharmaceutical forms with high solubility and enhanced bioavailability currently represents a significant challenge in the pharmaceutical industry. Currently, methods are still being explored to improve the oral bioavailability of Rivaroxaban, estimated to be 60%, due to its low solubility. [...] Read more.
The development of new pharmaceutical forms with high solubility and enhanced bioavailability currently represents a significant challenge in the pharmaceutical industry. Currently, methods are still being explored to improve the oral bioavailability of Rivaroxaban, estimated to be 60%, due to its low solubility. To address these challenges, this study uses the antisolvent precipitation method to obtain three nanosuspensions of rivaroxaban (RIV), using Poloxamer 188 (P188) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) by varying their concentrations (1:1:1, 1:1:2, and 1:2:1 molar ratios). The RIV nanosuspensions were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The antisolvent precipitation method led to the successful formulation of the three RIV nanosuspensions. Afterward, the formulated tablets containing dry RIV nanosuspensions were pharmaceutically characterized. RIV-P188-HPMC (1:1:1) and RIV-P188-HPMC (1:2:1) dry nanosuspensions demonstrated a uniform flow, and they were subsequently analyzed to establish the in vitro dissolution profile. The nanosuspension formulation with a higher content of P188 showed superior performance. Overall‚ the results of this study show that the antisolvent precipitation method in the presence of different amounts of HPMC and P188 is very efficient in increasing the dissolution rate of rivaroxaban to achieve its better efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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41 pages, 2925 KB  
Review
Electrosprayed PLGA Nanoparticles for Dual Drug Delivery: Design, Optimization and Applications
by Bahareh Azimi, Fatemeh Ahmadpoor, Alessia Tozzi, Afsaneh Shahraki, Homa Maleki, Pier Francesco Ferrari and Serena Danti
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1133; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091133 - 5 May 2026
Viewed by 976
Abstract
Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) is a biodegradable biopolymer widely used in advanced drug delivery systems (DDSs) due to its biocompatibility, controllable degradation behavior, and tunable physicochemical properties. Its degradation into naturally metabolized lactic and glycolic acids makes PLGA particularly attractive for biomedical [...] Read more.
Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) is a biodegradable biopolymer widely used in advanced drug delivery systems (DDSs) due to its biocompatibility, controllable degradation behavior, and tunable physicochemical properties. Its degradation into naturally metabolized lactic and glycolic acids makes PLGA particularly attractive for biomedical applications, positioning PLGA nanoparticles as versatile carriers that bridge material design and therapeutic delivery. In this context, electrospray (electrohydrodynamic atomization) has emerged as an innovative and scalable processing technique that enables precise control over nanoparticle size, morphology, and internal structure under mild conditions, which is particularly suitable for engineering biopolymer-based DDSs. This review provides a comprehensive overview of electrospray-fabricated PLGA nanoparticles, with emphasis on the relationship between processing conditions, polymer structure, and functional performance. The fundamental mechanisms governing drug release, including diffusion, polymer degradation, and their combined effects, are discussed in relation to PLGA properties. The influence of electrospray parameters on nanoparticle formation, morphology, and internal architecture is analyzed, highlighting how process–structure–property relationships can be tailored to achieve specific release profiles. Structural design strategies, including single-matrix, core–shell, and surface-functionalized nanoparticles, are further examined as approaches to enable controlled and sequential dual-DDSs. In addition, emerging modeling and computational approaches are briefly discussed as complementary tools for understanding and optimizing nanoparticle behavior. Challenges and technical problems, such as substrates for nanoparticle detachment, are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer Materials for Industrial Applications)
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24 pages, 3287 KB  
Article
Effect of Sugarcane Bagasse-Derived Cellulose Nanocrystals on the Thermal, Structural, Morphological and Biodegradation Properties of Poly(ε-caprolactone) and Poly(lactic Acid)
by Mbongeni Ngwenya, Thandi Patricia Gumede and Bennie Motloung
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1132; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091132 - 4 May 2026
Viewed by 932
Abstract
Biodegradable materials offer promising alternatives to petroleum-based polymers. This study investigates poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) and poly(lactic acid) (PLA) nanocomposites reinforced with 1, 3 and 5 wt.% cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) extracted from sugarcane bagasse via melt blending. The thermal, structural, morphological and biodegradation properties were [...] Read more.
Biodegradable materials offer promising alternatives to petroleum-based polymers. This study investigates poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) and poly(lactic acid) (PLA) nanocomposites reinforced with 1, 3 and 5 wt.% cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) extracted from sugarcane bagasse via melt blending. The thermal, structural, morphological and biodegradation properties were evaluated using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray scattering (WAXS/SAXS), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and biodegradation tests. SEM results revealed uniform dispersion of CNCs at low concentrations, whereas agglomeration occurred at higher concentrations for both PCL and PLA. At 1 wt.% CNCs, there was minimal impact on the biodegradation rates of both polymers, despite achieving uniform dispersion. However, significant acceleration in biodegradation was observed at 5 wt.% CNCs, attributed to the enhanced hydrophilic nature of the nanocomposites. CNCs acted as nucleating agents in PCL crystallization, while reducing the crystallization rate of PLA. This led to a mass loss of 36.4% for PCL and 82.2% for PLA, correlating with increased and decreased crystallinities, respectively. The study concludes that the hydrophilic–hydrophobic balance has a more significant influence on biodegradation rates than crystallinity or CNC dispersion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adsorption of Pollutants from the Environment Using Polymers and Their Composites)
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20 pages, 4883 KB  
Review
Progress in Materials for Metallic Cultural Heritage Conservation: Mechanisms, Applications, and Future Perspectives
by Yutong Liu, Xiang Liu, Shanxiang Xu and Xinyou Liu
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1131; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091131 - 4 May 2026
Viewed by 696
Abstract
Metallic cultural heritage artifacts are highly susceptible to multi-factor electrochemical degradation, driven by chloride ions, humidity, acidic deposition, and heterogeneous material interfaces. Traditional conservation materials, including organic and inorganic coatings and corrosion inhibitors, often exhibit limited interfacial compatibility, poor long-term stability, and insufficient [...] Read more.
Metallic cultural heritage artifacts are highly susceptible to multi-factor electrochemical degradation, driven by chloride ions, humidity, acidic deposition, and heterogeneous material interfaces. Traditional conservation materials, including organic and inorganic coatings and corrosion inhibitors, often exhibit limited interfacial compatibility, poor long-term stability, and insufficient multifunctionality. Recent advances in protective materials—including nano-enhanced coatings, self-healing systems, smart-responsive polymers, green biodegradable formulations, and metal–organic framework (MOF)-based composites—offer multifunctional, long-lasting, and minimally invasive solutions. These materials enhance corrosion inhibition, barrier performance, structural reinforcement, and environmental responsiveness, while enabling in situ sensing, reversible application, and ethical deployment. Laboratory evaluation, accelerated aging tests, and field verification demonstrate their efficacy in preserving artifact integrity and aesthetics. This review systematically discusses degradation mechanisms, limitations of traditional materials, and the mechanisms, applications, and future perspectives of novel functional coatings, providing a roadmap for scientifically optimized and ethically responsible conservation of metallic heritage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polymer Coatings)
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27 pages, 8249 KB  
Article
Impact of Multilayer Coatings on the Mechanical and Durability Performance of FRCM Composites
by Ali Çopuroğlu and Bekir Yilmaz Pekmezci
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1130; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091130 - 4 May 2026
Viewed by 705
Abstract
Fabric-reinforced cementitious matrix (FRCM) composites are strengthening systems composed of a technical textile embedded in a cementitious or lime-based matrix and are increasingly used for strengthening existing masonry and concrete structures due to their compatibility with traditional substrates. The mechanical behavior of FRCM [...] Read more.
Fabric-reinforced cementitious matrix (FRCM) composites are strengthening systems composed of a technical textile embedded in a cementitious or lime-based matrix and are increasingly used for strengthening existing masonry and concrete structures due to their compatibility with traditional substrates. The mechanical behavior of FRCM composites is controlled by the combined contribution of the textile reinforcement, the matrix, and the interface developed between them, with the textile–matrix interface playing a critical role in stress transfer, crack development, and post-cracking response. Since this interface is primarily defined by the coating applied to the textile, coating configuration represents a key parameter influencing both the mechanical and durability performance of the composite. In this study, carbon textile–reinforced FRCM systems incorporating a lime-based matrix and different coating strategies, including single-layer SBR coatings and multilayer SBR–epoxy coatings, were experimentally investigated. Tensile tests were conducted on unconditioned specimens as well as after exposure to water and alkaline environments to assess the evolution of tensile behavior and damage mechanisms under durability-related conditioning. The results indicated that the influence of coating configuration is slightly detectable in the pre-cracking elastic stage but becomes significant in the post-cracking stages, where load transfer and damage evolution are predominantly governed by the textile–matrix interface. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations supported the mechanical findings by revealing distinct differences in coating, interfacial continuity, and fiber–matrix bonding, particularly after environmental exposure. Overall, the multilayer coating configuration, consisting of the factory SBR-coated carbon textile further modified with epoxy, resulted in higher maximum tensile strength (reaching up to 1958 MPa compared with 1531–1780 MPa for the single SBR-coated configuration), greater strain capacity (εmax up to 0.01244 mm/mm compared with 0.00925–0.01066 mm/mm), and higher energy absorption under prolonged water and alkaline conditioning up to 3000 h. In quantitative terms, the multilayer SBR–epoxy coating improved the maximum tensile stress by approximately 10–15% and the total energy absorption capacity by 25–35%, depending on the conditioning regime. These findings demonstrate the effectiveness of multilayer coating architecture in improving long-term tensile retention, interfacial stress transfer, and post-cracking deformation capacity of lime-based carbon FRCM systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Coatings Technology and Their Multidisciplinary Applications)
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20 pages, 3413 KB  
Article
Bifunctional Poly(ionic liquid) Membranes for CO2 Utilization
by Maria Atlaskina, Kirill Smorodin, Sergey Kryuchkov, Artem Atlaskin, Nikolay Lukashov, Anton Petukhov, Andrey Vorotyntsev and Ilya Vorotyntsev
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1129; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091129 - 3 May 2026
Viewed by 942
Abstract
In this study, the task of integrating capture and conversion of CO2 into a single material platform is realized by developing bifunctional membranes based on polymer ionic liquids (PILs). The novelty of this work lies in the fabrication and comprehensive evaluation of [...] Read more.
In this study, the task of integrating capture and conversion of CO2 into a single material platform is realized by developing bifunctional membranes based on polymer ionic liquids (PILs). The novelty of this work lies in the fabrication and comprehensive evaluation of PIL-based membrane materials that combine catalytic activity toward CO2 conversion with gas separation performance within one material system. In contrast to most previously reported imidazolium-based PILs, which have mainly been considered either as catalysts or as membrane materials, the present approach focuses on their dual functionality under both catalytic and gas transport conditions. A series of imidazolium-based PILs, including homopolymers and block copolymers with polystyrene, were synthesized. The materials were characterized to determine their catalytic activity during the cycloaddition of CO2 to epichlorohydrin and to determine their gas transport properties using pure gases (N2, O2, CO2) and a simulated dry flue gas mixture; membrane morphology was studied by scanning electron microscopy. Block copolymers exhibited higher catalytic conversions (up to 82.7%) than homopolymers, with selectivities above 93%. Chloride-containing block copolymers gave the best combination of CO2 permeability (up to 7.5 Barrer) and CO2/N2 selectivity (18–22) under mixed-gas conditions. Iodide-containing analogs demonstrated higher selectivity (up to 30) but lower CO2 permeability. Morphological analysis confirmed the presence of dense, defect-free structures in materials with the chloride anion, while materials with the iodide anion showed increased free volume and microheterogeneity. These results indicate that by altering the polymer and anion architecture, PIL-based membranes can effectively combine catalytic activity with selective CO2 transport, providing a promising avenue for enhancing carbon capture and utilization processes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Polymers for Catalysts)
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20 pages, 4230 KB  
Article
Effect of Emulsifier Type on the Properties of SBR-Modified Cement-Based Materials
by Anhua Xu, Laifa Wang, Suining Zheng, Huiting Jia, Xinyan Wang, Yindong Xu and Huaxin Chen
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1128; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091128 - 3 May 2026
Viewed by 917
Abstract
Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) is a commonly used polymer modifier that can improve the mechanical properties and durability of cement mortar. However, the effects of different emulsifier types on cement hydration behavior and structural evolution still need to be systematically studied. To clarify [...] Read more.
Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) is a commonly used polymer modifier that can improve the mechanical properties and durability of cement mortar. However, the effects of different emulsifier types on cement hydration behavior and structural evolution still need to be systematically studied. To clarify the differences among anionic, cationic, and nonionic SBR emulsions on mortar performance, three types of SBR emulsion were selected in this study. Setting time, chemically bound water, mechanical properties, chloride ion diffusion, freeze–thaw cycles, and microstructure were tested to evaluate the effects of different types and dosages on cement mortar. The results show that all three types of SBR emulsion prolong the setting time of cement paste and reduce the early hydration degree. The cationic SBR emulsion shows a more obvious effect. At 28 d, the compressive strength of mortar with 10% cationic SBR emulsion increases from 38.5 MPa to 41.2 MPa, and the flexural strength also increases. In terms of impermeability, the chloride ion diffusion coefficient decreases from 7.47 × 10−12 m2/s to 5.12 × 10−12 m2/s after adding 10% cationic SBR emulsion. After 100 freeze–thaw cycles, the compressive strength loss of ordinary mortar is 16%, while it decreases to 7.2% with 15% cationic SBR emulsion, and the mass loss is also reduced. Microstructural analysis shows that the modified mortar has a denser internal structure, improved interfacial continuity, and reduced crack development after freeze–thaw cycles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers and Functional Additives in Construction Materials)
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17 pages, 2709 KB  
Article
Empirical Structure–Property Relationships of PLLA-b-PEG-b-PLLA Triblock Copolymers with Tunable Thermal, Tensile, and Swelling Behavior
by Yang Hu, Xiaoya Sun, Wei Wu and Adam K. Ekenseair
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1127; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091127 - 2 May 2026
Viewed by 1104
Abstract
PLLA-b-PEG-b-PLLA triblock copolymers are promising materials because of their highly tunable properties. However, a systematic understanding of composition–property relationships remains limited. In this study, a series of A-B-A triblock copolymers was synthesized with polyethylene glycol (PEG) as soft center [...] Read more.
PLLA-b-PEG-b-PLLA triblock copolymers are promising materials because of their highly tunable properties. However, a systematic understanding of composition–property relationships remains limited. In this study, a series of A-B-A triblock copolymers was synthesized with polyethylene glycol (PEG) as soft center (B) domains and poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) as hard end (A) domains via ring-opening polymerization. Copolymer composition and molecular weights were characterized by proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H NMR) and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). The thermal and mechanical properties of the copolymers were evaluated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and tensile testing. We established quantitative structure–property relationships using empirical data, demonstrating that PLLA block length played a key role in modulating tensile properties, with a near-linear relationship, while PEG molecular weight critically influenced mechanical stability. An approximate minimum PLLA block length of 20 repeat units was found as a threshold required to maintain structural integrity during in vitro 24 h swelling. These findings provide insights and practical guidance for the design of triblock copolymers with tunable thermal, mechanical, and swelling properties of PLLA-b-PEG-b-PLLA triblock copolymers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Analysis and Characterization)
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28 pages, 17498 KB  
Review
Viscoelastic Hydrogels Governed by Molecular Interactions and Mechanochemical Effects
by Wenjie Zhang, Dianrui Zhang, Haocheng Niu, Junsheng Zhang and Yiran Li
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1126; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091126 - 2 May 2026
Viewed by 1017
Abstract
Hydrogels, particularly those based on polymer networks, exhibit complex mechanical behaviors arising from the interplay between network architecture, molecular interactions, and external stimuli. In particular, their viscoelasticity, energy dissipation, and nonlinear mechanical responses arise from the dynamic nature of crosslinking and multiscale relaxation [...] Read more.
Hydrogels, particularly those based on polymer networks, exhibit complex mechanical behaviors arising from the interplay between network architecture, molecular interactions, and external stimuli. In particular, their viscoelasticity, energy dissipation, and nonlinear mechanical responses arise from the dynamic nature of crosslinking and multiscale relaxation processes. This review provides a comprehensive overview of hydrogel mechanics from a multiscale perspective, covering viscoelastic behavior, relaxation dynamics, energy dissipation mechanisms, nonlinear deformation, and fracture properties. We summarize recent advances in experimental characterization, including bulk rheology and single-molecule force spectroscopy, and discuss how molecular-level interactions, bond kinetics and mechanochemical processes contribute to macroscopic mechanical performance. In addition, theoretical models and constitutive frameworks describing transient and dynamic polymer networks are critically evaluated to bridge microscopic dynamics with bulk responses. Emerging strategies that integrate dynamic bonding and force-responsive elements are also discussed in the context of tailoring mechanical adaptability and functionality. Finally, we outline current challenges and future directions toward the rational design of hydrogels with tunable viscoelasticity, enhanced mechanical robustness, and programmable mechanical functions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Mechanochemistry: From Fundamentals to Applications)
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17 pages, 4960 KB  
Article
FFF-Printed PET and PMMA for Provisional Restorations: An In Vitro Evaluation of Mechanical Properties, Dimensional Accuracy, and Bonding Behavior
by Julia Gmeiner, John Meinen, Moritz Hoffmann and Bogna Stawarczyk
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1125; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091125 - 2 May 2026
Viewed by 1130
Abstract
The purpose of this in vitro study was to evaluate the mechanical performance, dimensional accuracy, and bonding behavior of fused filament fabrication (FFF)-printed provisional restorations made from polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and compare them with digital light processing (DLP)-printed and [...] Read more.
The purpose of this in vitro study was to evaluate the mechanical performance, dimensional accuracy, and bonding behavior of fused filament fabrication (FFF)-printed provisional restorations made from polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and compare them with digital light processing (DLP)-printed and computer-aided numerical control (CNC)-milled ones. Occlusal veneers (OV), posterior crowns (PC), and anterior crowns (AC) (n = 30) were fabricated using FFF (PMMA, PET), DLP (acrylate), and CNC (PMMA) to assess initial fracture load (IFL). To determine reproducibility three restorations of each group were scanned and compared with each other; to determine printing accuracy the scanned restorations were compared with the STL generated for manufacturing. For shear bond strength (SBS) testing, 72 PMMA (FFF) specimens were conditioned with either Monobond Plus (MP) or Visiolink (VL) and bonded with acrylic cylinders using a dual-cure luting composite (Variolink Esthetic DC). Half of each group underwent thermocycling (10,000 cycles, 5 °C/55 °C, 30 s dwell time); the remainder was tested initially. Additionally, 48 FFF-printed PC were fabricated from PET and PMMA to investigate the fracture load in relation to the adhesive material (FL). PMMA crowns were conditioned with MP (n = 16) or VL (n = 16) and bonded with Variolink Esthetic DC. PET crowns were cemented with either Meron (ME) or Ketac Cem Plus (KE). Half of the PMMA and all PET crowns were subjected to masticatory simulation (1,200,000 cycles, 5 N, 5 °C/55 °C, 60 s dwell). Data were analyzed using Kolmogorov–Smirnov, Kruskal–Wallis, and Mann–Whitney U tests, including IFL, SBS and FL parametric tests, and comparisons were carried out using an independent t-test (α = 0.05). FFF-fabricated restorations showed the lowest fracture load values and CNC-fabricated the highest (p < 0.001). OV fabricated via DLP and CNC exhibited the highest fracture load (p < 0.001). For FFF, PC demonstrated the highest values (p < 0.028), whereas AC showed the lowest fracture load values (p < 0.001). VL showed higher initial SBS than MP (p < 0.001) and no impact on aging (p < 0.608). All MP samples showed debonding after thermocycling. Within PET and PMMA, no impact of luting/cement material on fracture load was observed (p = 0.116–0.282). The fracture load decreased after masticatory simulation (MP-PMMA: p < 0.001, VL-PMMA: p = 0.27). DLP-fabricated restorations showed the highest reproducibility and printing accuracy. CNC and FFF-PET showed comparable values. FFF-PMMA showed the greatest deviations. CNC-fabricated provisional restorations exhibited the highest fracture load. AC presented the lowest fracture load values. DLP provided the highest reproducibility and accuracy. VL achieved superior bonding to PMMA surfaces. Thermomechanical aging significantly reduced fracture load in both PET and PMMA restorations, regardless of luting material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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25 pages, 4445 KB  
Article
Sustainable Protective Composite Textiles: Valorizing Hemp Hurd and Corn Stover Lignin via Electrospinning
by Dorota B. Szlek, Nara Han, Chang Geun Yoo and Margaret W. Frey
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1124; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091124 - 2 May 2026
Viewed by 1092
Abstract
Valorization of abundant agricultural residues, particularly lignin, provides the opportunity to divert waste streams while enabling materials to inherently exhibit durable functionalities, including UV-blocking, antioxidant properties and water repellency. This study reports the side-by-side valorization of hemp hurd (HL) and corn stover lignin [...] Read more.
Valorization of abundant agricultural residues, particularly lignin, provides the opportunity to divert waste streams while enabling materials to inherently exhibit durable functionalities, including UV-blocking, antioxidant properties and water repellency. This study reports the side-by-side valorization of hemp hurd (HL) and corn stover lignin (CL), extracted using the CELF process, into electrospun lignin/nylon 6 nanofiber membranes, establishing how lignin botanical origin, molecular weight (Mw), and blend ratio govern multifunctional performance relevant to protective membranes in textiles. Lignin–nylon 6 hydrogen bonding was regulated by the OH content and accessibility, Mw, and purity, and influenced the functional properties of the fibers. While stronger in low-Mw nanofibers, these interactions were weakest in low-Mw HL samples due to the lowest purity, despite the highest OH content. Fibers with low-Mw lignin yielded finer, brittle fibers with higher UV blocking, whereas high-Mw fractions showed higher antioxidant performance due to decreased interactions with nylon 6. Overall, lignin/nylon 6 nanofiber membranes delivered biobased UPF 50+ performance, 55–61% antioxidant activity at the optimal concentration, and exhibited tunable water repellency via fraction selection and the blend ratio. In combination with a nanofiber architecture, these membranes can impart durable inherent functionality onto textile substrates without affecting their existing properties, including water vapor permeability, without the use of chemical finishing, while utilizing renewable resources from agricultural residues. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Study on Lignin-Containing Composites)
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21 pages, 23707 KB  
Article
Corrosion Behaviour of Injection- and Compression-Moulded Nd–Fe–B and Sm–Fe–N Magnets with Different Polymer Binders
by Nikolina Lešić, Nataša Kovačević and Ingrid Milošev
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1123; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091123 - 2 May 2026
Viewed by 1080
Abstract
The corrosion behaviour and environmental durability of injection- and compression-moulded Nd–Fe–B and Sm–Fe–N magnets were investigated. For injection-moulded magnets, the effects of magnetic powder type (Nd–Fe–B and Sm–Fe–N), magnetic powder particle size (100 µm and 400 µm), and polymer binder (PPS and PA12) [...] Read more.
The corrosion behaviour and environmental durability of injection- and compression-moulded Nd–Fe–B and Sm–Fe–N magnets were investigated. For injection-moulded magnets, the effects of magnetic powder type (Nd–Fe–B and Sm–Fe–N), magnetic powder particle size (100 µm and 400 µm), and polymer binder (PPS and PA12) on corrosion resistance were studied. For compression-moulded magnets with an epoxy binder, the effects of powder type and size were examined. Corrosion resistance was investigated using potentiodynamic polarisation in electrolytes of varying pH (1.8–12.8). The Sm–Fe–N magnets exhibited slightly better corrosion resistance than the Nd–Fe–B magnets, irrespective of the polymer binder. The finer magnetic powders (100 µm) showed lower corrosion resistance due to their larger specific surface area, with a more pronounced effect in the compression-moulded magnets. The type of polymer binder had only a minor effect. The hygrothermal corrosion resistance and thermal stability were evaluated using bulk corrosion (BCT) and thermal shock tests, respectively. Surface corrosion was observed in all magnets after the BCT, with the compression-moulded magnets exhibiting a greater irreversible loss of magnetic properties. The thermal shock test caused a temporary reduction in magnetic properties, with recovery after remagnetisation, demonstrating the good thermal stability of both magnet types. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Processing Strategy for Functional Polymer Materials: 2nd Edition)
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22 pages, 839 KB  
Article
Numerical Investigation of Die Swell Behavior in EPDM Rubber Extrusion: Effects of Compound Formulation and Processing Conditions
by Yancai Sun, Haoran Wang, Jingtao Jiang, Kongshuo Wang, Wenjuan Bai, Dianming Chu, Ranran Jian, Peiwu Hou, Yan He and Wenzhong Deng
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1122; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091122 - 1 May 2026
Viewed by 1125
Abstract
Die swell is the dominant source of dimensional deviation in rubber profile extrusion. Because it is driven by recoverable elastic strain, a purely viscous baseline flow field cannot reproduce its speed dependence; a viscoelastic correction is required. This study presents, to the best [...] Read more.
Die swell is the dominant source of dimensional deviation in rubber profile extrusion. Because it is driven by recoverable elastic strain, a purely viscous baseline flow field cannot reproduce its speed dependence; a viscoelastic correction is required. This study presents, to the best of our knowledge, the first controlled comparison of a Carreau–Arrhenius baseline flow field against a fractional-order viscoelastic correction for carbon-black-filled EPDM across an industrial speed window. The viscoelastic correction (PyCFD-FMM) is a post-processing fractional-order viscoelastic swell correction built on the shared non-isothermal Polyflow Carreau–Arrhenius flow field, derived from a six-mode fractional Maxwell model parameterized from dynamic mechanical analysis via the Laun rule and closed through the Tanner recoverable-strain theory. Three carbon-black-filled EPDM compounds (Shore A 60–80) were extruded at four screw speeds (15–30 rpm) under instrumented conditions. Experimentally, swell ratios of 1.12–1.15 increase monotonically with screw speed (Fisher-combined p=0.007; measurement repeatability CV ≤0.27% across n=4 replicates per condition). The purely viscous baseline output gives a decreasing apparent swell–speed trend—opposite to experiment—whereas PyCFD-FMM recovers the correct increasing trend for all compounds. Under single-anchor hold-out evaluation at 20/25/30 rpm, the non-anchor MAPE decreases from 0.99% for the baseline flow-field output to 0.30% (PyCFD-FMM); an anchor-sensitivity check over all four rpm choices keeps the compound-averaged non-anchor MAPE within 0.27–0.39% and preserves the correct slope sign in every case. Swell decomposition into geometric baseline and net correction factor (BPyCFD=Bgeom×fcorr) confirms that the viscous baseline flow field captures flow-geometry effects but carries no elastic memory. Within the tested window, the viscoelastic correction meets a dual-gate criterion—correct slope sign and reduced non-anchor MAPE—which the purely viscous baseline cannot satisfy by construction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufactuging of Polymer-Based Nanocomposites and Composites: Progress and Prospects)
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20 pages, 10919 KB  
Article
From Fishery Waste to Functional Adhesives: Milkfish (Chanos chanos) Skin Collagen–Polyvinylpyrrolidone Physically Crosslinked Biohybrid Adhesive for Sustainable Paper Bonding
by Kangsadan Boonprab and Jirawat Satiankomsorakrai
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1121; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091121 - 1 May 2026
Viewed by 1143
Abstract
Environmental concerns over plastic-based adhesives highlight the urgent need for biodegradable alternatives. This study transforms milkfish (Chanos chanos) skin waste from the fishery industry into a collagen–polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) biohybrid adhesive stick for paper bonding. Milkfish showed the highest adhesive strength among [...] Read more.
Environmental concerns over plastic-based adhesives highlight the urgent need for biodegradable alternatives. This study transforms milkfish (Chanos chanos) skin waste from the fishery industry into a collagen–polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) biohybrid adhesive stick for paper bonding. Milkfish showed the highest adhesive strength among twenty species, requiring ≥213.7 mg/g hydroxyproline for optimal performance. Type I collagen was confirmed via Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and amino acid composition, and the extraction yield reached 68.82%. The fish skin collagen–PVP glue stick demonstrated paper adhesion and physicochemical properties comparable to starch-based and commercial glues, with lower hardness and more dry adhesive per unit area. Sensory evaluation using quantitative descriptive analysis revealed no significant differences (p < 0.05) compared to commercial glue sticks, except for increased glue consumption and reduced shape retention. The shelf life exceeded 70 days. Collagen adhesive from fish skin offers comparable efficiency to chemical and other bio-based adhesives, providing a sustainable solution that promotes the circular economy and green innovation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers for Environmental Applications)
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36 pages, 4746 KB  
Review
Polymer–Graphene Composites for Electrochemical Sensing: A Comprehensive Review of Functionalization Pathways and Sustainable Design Strategies
by Domingo César Carrascal-Hernández, Andrea Ramos-Hernández, Nataly J. Galán-Freyle, Daniel Insuasty and Maximiliano Méndez-López
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1120; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091120 - 1 May 2026
Viewed by 1261
Abstract
Environmental pollution constitutes an increasingly complex global challenge, largely driven by industrial expansion and the consequent release of toxic species such as Cd2+, Pb2+, Cu2+, Hg2+, Fe3+, As3+, and Rh3+ [...] Read more.
Environmental pollution constitutes an increasingly complex global challenge, largely driven by industrial expansion and the consequent release of toxic species such as Cd2+, Pb2+, Cu2+, Hg2+, Fe3+, As3+, and Rh3+ into natural ecosystems. These contaminants pose significant risks to environmental integrity and public health, motivating the development of analytical technologies capable of sensitive, selective, and reliable detection. In this context, graphene-based electrochemical sensors have emerged as versatile platforms for monitoring a broad range of analytes, particularly in environmental applications involving heavy-metal detection. The intrinsic physicochemical properties of graphene derivatives have enabled low detection limits, rapid response times, and tunable selectivity. Despite analytical advances, critical challenges persist regarding operational stability in complex matrices, inter-batch reproducibility, and robustness to interfering species, which continue to hinder large-scale deployment and real-world applicability. However, challenges remain regarding stability and performance in complex arrays, reproducibility, and resistance to interference, necessitating innovative strategies for functionalization and molecular recognition. This review article establishes a comparative framework based on functionalization strategies (covalent, non-covalent, and hybrid), the chemical nature of graphene (GO, rGO, and doping), and various types of polymers (conductors and insulators), using statistical metrics such as the limit of detection (LOD), linear range, working potential, stability, and interferences, employing a bibliometric analysis using the PRISMA 2020 methodology. This comparative framework enables analysis and explanation of performance trends, and the generation of design and functionalization recommendations for versatile applications, including criteria for reproducibility and sustainability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer–Graphene Composites: Preparation, Properties, and Applications)
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20 pages, 3879 KB  
Article
Solar-Driven Photocatalytic Degradation of Dye Pollutant Using MnO2-Modified Biochar via Fenton-like Reactions
by Jorge A. Soto Sandoval, Abdullah Al Ragib, Janusz Kozinski, Sudip K. Rakshit and Kang Kang
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1119; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091119 - 30 Apr 2026
Viewed by 1247
Abstract
Manganese dioxide (MnO2) modified biochar catalysts derived from biomass and waste polymer feedstocks were synthesized and evaluated as heterogeneous Fenton-like catalysts for solar-driven degradation of Rhodamine B (RhB) in aqueous systems. Biochars produced from maple wood and plastic waste (high-density polyethylene) [...] Read more.
Manganese dioxide (MnO2) modified biochar catalysts derived from biomass and waste polymer feedstocks were synthesized and evaluated as heterogeneous Fenton-like catalysts for solar-driven degradation of Rhodamine B (RhB) in aqueous systems. Biochars produced from maple wood and plastic waste (high-density polyethylene) provided porous carbon matrices with oxygen-rich surface functionalities that enabled effective MnO2 loading and catalytic activity. Photocatalytic experiments conducted under real sunlight using a solar-collector reactor demonstrated faster RhB degradation compared to a conventional ultraviolet (UV) system, confirming the advantage of solar-driven operation. Complete RhB removal was achieved at initial concentrations of 100–300 ppm, whereas higher dye concentrations (500 ppm) exceeded the catalytic capacity within the tested reaction time. Kinetic analysis revealed catalyst-dependent reaction behaviors, indicating that degradation pathways were strongly influenced by the biopolymer-derived carbon structure and MnO2 dispersion. Degradation efficiency was correlated with solar irradiance and reactor temperature, with higher UV index conditions enhancing catalytic performance. Reusability tests showed that the catalysts remained active over multiple cycles, although gradual decreases in reaction rates and catalyst recovery were observed. These results demonstrate the potential of biopolymer-derived carbon materials as effective solar-driven catalysts for wastewater treatment applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopolymer-Derived Carbon Materials: Applications in Environmental Remediation and Renewable Energy Production)
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17 pages, 6492 KB  
Article
Green Fabrication of Phosphocreatine Intercalated Layered Double Hydroxides for Highly Efficient Flame-Retardant Epoxy Nanocomposites
by Xuqi Yang, Shuyi Zhang, Marjan Entezar Shabestari, Abbas Mohammadi, Bahareh Hoomehr, Ehsan Naderi Kalali and Saeid Lotfian
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1118; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091118 - 30 Apr 2026
Viewed by 927
Abstract
We co-modified layered double hydroxide (LDH) in water using phosphocreatine (PC) and dodecylphosphoric acid (DPA) to obtain a highly dispersible LDH. Embedding this LDH in epoxy enabled V-0 at 7 wt% and lowered HRR, THR and TSP, attributed to a dense char and [...] Read more.
We co-modified layered double hydroxide (LDH) in water using phosphocreatine (PC) and dodecylphosphoric acid (DPA) to obtain a highly dispersible LDH. Embedding this LDH in epoxy enabled V-0 at 7 wt% and lowered HRR, THR and TSP, attributed to a dense char and PC-DPA synergy. SEM, WAXS, and TGA characterised the structure and thermal behaviour of the functionalised LDHs. These modified LDHs were then loaded into the epoxy resin (EP) to develop flame-retardant nanocomposites. Compared to unmodified LDH (NO3-LDH) and PC-modified LDH (PC-LDH), PC-DPA-LDH showed superior dispersion and compatibility within the epoxy matrix. As a result, PC-DPA-LDH/EP achieved a UL-94 V-0 rating at only 7 wt% loading, while NO3-LDH/EP had no rating, and PC-LDH/EP reached only V-2. Moreover, PC-DPA-LDH/EP demonstrated significant decreases in peak heat release rate (46.4%), total heat release (34.5%), and total smoke production (59.7%) compared with neat EP. These improvements were attributed to the synergistic flame-retardant effects of PC and DPA, as well as to the formation of a compact char layer that effectively insulated the underlying material and suppressed volatile emissions. This work highlights the potential of bio-based, aqueous-synthesised nanohybrids for high-efficiency, eco-friendly flame-retardant epoxy systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flame-Retardant Polymer-Based Materials)
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20 pages, 11654 KB  
Article
Development of an Antibacterial Coating Based on PVP–PEG Fibers Incorporating Silver Nanoparticles and a Method for Its Application to Skin
by Elizaveta Mokhova, Natalia Menshutina, Sergei Kalenov, Svetlana Evdokimova, Anastasiya Shirokikh and Ksenia Serkina
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1117; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091117 - 30 Apr 2026
Viewed by 1150
Abstract
This article presents the results of the development of an antibacterial coating based on polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and polyethylene glycol (PEG) fibers with embedded silver nanoparticles. Silver nanoparticles were synthesized via the use of PEG, which acts as a reducing agent for Ag+ [...] Read more.
This article presents the results of the development of an antibacterial coating based on polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and polyethylene glycol (PEG) fibers with embedded silver nanoparticles. Silver nanoparticles were synthesized via the use of PEG, which acts as a reducing agent for Ag+ ions and a stabilizer for the colloidal system. The resulting sols were pink, dark purple, and orange color. The viscosity of the compositions, which increased with increasing PEG and AgNO3 concentrations, was studied. The sizes of the synthesized silver nanoparticles were determined via dynamic light scattering. For all compositions, monomodal particle size distributions were obtained with characteristic sizes of 50.75, 58.73, 13.54 and 28.21 nm. The highest ζ-potential value for the silver nanoparticles was −15.5 mV, indicating their stability. The electrical conductivity of the compositions increased with increasing molar concentration of AgNO3. The resulting PVP-PEG compositions with silver nanoparticles demonstrated resistance to pathogenic bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. A portable electrospinning device was developed at the Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology of Russia to apply the compositions to the skin and form a protective coating of PVP-PEG fibers with an antibacterial effect. Fiber formation was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy. The incorporation of silver into the fiber structure was confirmed by the results of elemental analysis and surface mapping of the samples. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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18 pages, 17341 KB  
Review
Selective Control Mechanisms, Quantitative Evaluation, and Sustainable Strategies for Cultural Heritage Surface Cleaning
by Jiaxin Zhang, Yutong Liu, Xiang Liu, Shanxiang Xu, Wenxuan Chen and Xinyou Liu
Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1116; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091116 - 30 Apr 2026
Viewed by 933
Abstract
The conservation of cultural heritage artifacts requires precise and controlled cleaning strategies to remove surface contaminants while preserving the structural and aesthetic integrity of the original materials. Over time, artifacts made of stone, paper, textiles, and other materials are exposed to environmental pollution, [...] Read more.
The conservation of cultural heritage artifacts requires precise and controlled cleaning strategies to remove surface contaminants while preserving the structural and aesthetic integrity of the original materials. Over time, artifacts made of stone, paper, textiles, and other materials are exposed to environmental pollution, chemical reactions, and microbial colonization, which lead to the accumulation of complex contaminant layers and progressive material degradation. In recent years, significant advances in materials science have introduced innovative cleaning approaches, including polymer gels, microemulsions, nanomaterials, and enzyme-assisted systems, which enable selective contaminant removal with reduced risk of substrate damage. These methods provide improved control over solvent release, contaminant dissolution, and interaction with sensitive surfaces compared to conventional mechanical and chemical cleaning techniques. In addition, advanced analytical tools such as Raman spectroscopy, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) have enabled quantitative evaluation of cleaning efficiency and more accurate monitoring of conservation processes. This review summarizes the major contamination mechanisms affecting cultural heritage materials and discusses recent developments in cleaning technologies, functional materials, and evaluation methods. The analysis shows that selective cleaning methods can significantly minimize damage to the underlying substrate, while environmentally friendly functional materials combined with multi-dimensional quantitative evaluation provide an effective and sustainable framework for cultural heritage conservation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational and Experimental Approaches in Polymeric Materials, 2nd Edition)
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