Next Article in Journal
Low-Cost Spore Traps: An Efficient Tool to Manage Fusarium Head Blight through Improved Cropping Systems
Next Article in Special Issue
Global Distributions of Clarireedia Species and Their In Vitro Sensitivity Profiles to Fungicides
Previous Article in Journal
Fusarium Wilt of Bananas: A Review of Agro-Environmental Factors in the Venezuelan Production System Affecting Its Development
Previous Article in Special Issue
Will Triazoles Still Be of Importance in Disease Control of Zymoseptoria tritici in the Future?
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Agronomy
Volume 11
Issue 5
10.3390/agronomy11050985
agronomy-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Carvacrol: A Promising Environmentally Friendly Agent to Fight Seeds Damping-Off Diseases Induced by Fungal Species

by
Hamza Saghrouchni
1,*,
Azeddin El Barnossi
2,
Ahmad Mohammad Salamatullah
3,
Mohammed Bourhia
4,
Abdulhakeem Alzahrani
3,
Mohammed Saeed Alkaltham
3,
Heba Khalil Alyahya
3,
Nour El Houda Tahiri
5,
Hamada Imtara
6 and
Işıl Var
7
1
Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Natural and Applied Sciences, Çukurova University, 1380 Adana, Turkey
2
Laboratory of Biotechnology, Environment, Agri-Food, and Health, Faculty of Sciences Dhar El Mahraz, Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University, 30000 Fez, Morocco
3
Department of Food Science & Nutrition, College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
4
Laboratory of Chemistry, Biochemistry, Nutrition, and Environment, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University Hassan II, 20000 Casablanca, Morocco
5
Laboratory of Physiology, Pharmacology and Environmental Health, Faculty of Sciences Dhar El Mahraz, Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University, 30000 Fez, Morocco
6
Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Arab American University Palestine, P.O. Box 240, Jenin 44862, Palestine
7
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Çukurova University, 1380 Adana, Turkey
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2021, 11(5), 985; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11050985
Submission received: 24 April 2021 / Revised: 2 May 2021 / Accepted: 11 May 2021 / Published: 15 May 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Control of Fungal Diseases)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Background: Gramineae damping-off disease is a growing problem worldwide, which affects a large range of seedlings in nurseries, glasshouses, gardens, crops, forests and untimely generates a heavy economic impact on the agriculture and related sectors. Objectives: The present study was conducted to evaluate the preventive potential of carvacrol on germination of Fusarium oxysporum, Neocosmospora solani, and Microdochium nivale spores as responsible agents for Lolium perenne seeds damping-off disease. Material and methods: Macrodilution method in agar medium, spore germination, spore destruction, and preventive treatment bioassays were used to achieve this goal. Results: The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of carvacrol vs. tested strains existed in the range of 0.25–0.5 mg/mL. Carvacrol used in concentrations ranging from 0.2 to 0.4 mg/mL inhibited the germination of all fungal spores in a dose-dependent manner. Carvacrol showed a very strong sporicidal effect against all studied fungal strains, and this effect was well confirmed by microscopic observations. The percentage of growth inhibition was found to be strictly correlated to carvacrol dose up vs. all strains. Carvacrol increased the emergence of L. perenne seeds when compared to both uninfested and infested seeds. Conclusion: Based on the results obtained, carvacrol fulfills the requirement for being a natural alternative agent to fight Gramineae seedlings’ damping-off caused by fungal species without adverse effects on the plants.

1. Introduction

Seeds damping-off disease is a disease complex that affects a wide range of seedlings in nurseries, glasshouses, gardens, crops, and forests, and can kill both germinating and young seedlings [1]. This disease is generally controlled by treating seeds with fungicides and pesticides, which have harmful effects on the environment and human health when used excessively [2]. As a result, many countries have limited the use of a variety of toxic chemical products [3]. Thus, intensive research is needed to explore alternative and more sustainable management strategies for seed protection. In this sense, numerous studies have explored the potential use of natural substances for the control of soil-borne plant pathogens [4,5,6].
Several fungi including Fusarium spp., Microdochium spp., and Neocosmospora spp. can cause seeds damping-off [7,8]. Moreover, recent studies have shown that the Fusarium genus parasitises the grass seeds and can attack the whole plant [9,10]. Microdochium nivale (Fr.) Samuels and I.C. Hallet (M. nivale), Fusarium oxysporum described by Schltdl. (F. oxysporum), and Neocosmospora solani (Mart.) L. Lombard and Crous, three species owning to the “Fusarium complex” (N. solani) have devastating effects on species belonging to wild Gramineae, Lolium perenne L. (L. perenne) [11]. This disease is economically challenging since this fungus attacks several types of Gramineae including rice, maize, wheat, barley, oats, and rye and therefore induces significant losses especially when the environmental conditions are favourable [12].
Since the seeds damping-off is inevitably present in the majority of crops, most farmers often adopt a preventive strategy by treating the entire surface area using highly toxic products. These products can be used before planting and/or during cultivation, e.g., chloropicrin and benomyl [13,14]. It is reasonable that Fusarium wilt disease is one of the most fungicide consuming [10]. Due to excessive use, some fungicides can no longer be effective towards resistant strains among fungal species. Therefore, it is necessary to identify alternative weapons to control Fusarium wilt disease [15].
Over recent years, the effect of natural products in treating fungal diseases has been the subject of increasing interest, which is fuelled by a growing concern for better environmental protection [16,17,18,19]. Among them, there are plant crude extracts, essential oils, and their compounds that have proven efficacy in treating diseases caused by fungi without side effects on the environment [20,21]. Carvacrol is a natural agent derived from plants (Thymus vulgaris and Origanum vulgare described by Linnaeus). This monoterpene is considered nontoxic to humans and is commonly used as a flavouring substance. Carvacrol has been the subject of many investigations that place a higher priority on natural products with pharmacological activities to control such diseases. Previous investigations demonstrated that carvacrol is one of the potent monoterpenes that can be used to control fungal species [22,23,24].
The present work aimed to test Carvacrol as a promising environmentally friendly biofongicide to fight fungal species attacking seeds grasses without harming the environment.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Fungal Strains

Strains of F. oxysporum, N. solani, and M. nivale used in the present study were isolated from diseased leaves, stems, and roots of L. perenne before being identified by Abdelilah Iraqi Housseini (Laboratory of Biotechnology, Environment, Agri-Food, and Health, Faculty of Sciences Dhar El Mahraz, Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University, Fez, Morocco) [19].

2.2. Preparation of the Spore Suspension

Sporulation was obtained by culturing the fungi strains on potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium (purchased from Biokar, France) at 28 °C for 7 days [25]. Briefly, the spores were collected by flooding the plate with 5 mL of 0.05 % (v/v) tween 20, using a sterile spread rod. The number of spores in the mother suspension was counted using a hemocytometer calculator with light microscopy before being diluted to be about 106 spores/mL. Next, the number of cells per average square was counted (area: 0.0025 mm2; depth: 0.2 mm) using microscopy before being diluted to 106 spores/mL [26].

2.3. Antifungal Activity Assay

2.3.1. Growth Inhibition Assay

Growth inhibition assay was performed as described in earlier work [27]. Briefly, a series of Petri plates (90 mm) were prepared with increasing concentrations of Carvacrol (99 %) 0.12, 0.25, 0.5, 1, and 2 mg/mL (the carvacrol (Figure 1) was kindly offered by FLAGRESSO, Austria). Then, each plate of PDA medium was inoculated by depositing 20 μL of a suspension of 106 spores/mL. Afterward, the plates were incubated at 28 °C for 7 days. Then, the diameter of the fungal colonies was measured daily during incubation. Growth inhibition percentage (GI %) of radial mycelium was calculated according to the following equation [28]:
GI (%) = (dt − Dt/dt) × 100
where dt and Dt, respectively, represent the diameter of the control and the diameter in the presence of carvacrol concentrations. Quantitative data were expressed as means of triplicate experiments.

2.3.2. Spores Germination Inhibition Assay

Using an Eppendorf tube of 1 mL, 100 microliters of freshly prepared spore suspension (106 spores/mL) were mixed with 900 μL of carvacrol solution at different concentrations (0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, and 1 mg/mL) using sterile malt extract broth (BEM) medium (was purchased from Biokar, France). The negative control tube contained 100 μL of freshly prepared spore suspension (106 spores/mL) with 900 μL of sterile BEM medium. The Eppendorf tubes were incubated under stirring for 24 h at 28 °C. Afterward, the evaluation of spore germination inhibition was determined by spreading a volume of 100 μL of each tube on the surface of sabouraud agar (SB) plates (90 mm) [15]. After 7 days of incubation at 28 °C, the emerged fungal colonies were manually counted. A spore is considered to have germinated when the length of the germ tube is longer than its smallest diameter, which will give a future monosporal fungal colony [30]. Quantitative data were expressed as means of triplicate experiments.

2.3.3. Spores Destruction Assay

A spore destruction test was used to evaluate the sporicidal effect of carvacrol. Briefly, 100 microliters of freshly prepared spore suspension (106 spores/mL) were mixed with 900 μL of carvacrol at various concentrations (0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8 and 0.4 mg/mL) according to the method described by Remmal et al. [31,32]. The fungal spores destruction was evaluated after incubation at 28 °C for 24 h. Then, a 900 μL aqueous sterile solution of 0.9% NaCl containing 0.2% agar, mixed with 100 μL of the suspension, was used as a control tube (106 spores/mL). The number of conidia was determined using Malassez cell after 1, 3, 6, 12, and 24 h of incubation at 28 °C. After each time, 20 μL of spore suspension was deposited between a slide and a coverslip before being observed using an optical microscope (×400). The percentage of spore destruction was calculated using the following equation [33]:
I (%) = (Nc − Nt)/Nc × 100
where Nc and Nt represent the number of spores in the control and the test tubes, respectively. Quantitative data were expressed as means of triplicate experiments.

2.4. In Vitro Preventive Treatment Assay

2.4.1. In Vitro Preliminary Toxicity Testing for Carvacrol on Germination of L. perenne Seeds

The grass seeds of the English ryegrass variety, Lolium perenne used in this work were obtained from the technical team of the Golf Royal Dar Es-salaam of Rabat, Morocco. A total of 120 seeds were disinfected with 12° sodium hypochlorite solution for 20 min and then rinsed twice with sterile distilled water for 10 min before being transferred to Petri plates containing sterile layers of filter paper [34,35]. Afterward, the seeds were divided into 4 groups of 30 seeds, and each group (Table 1) was treated with a carvacrol solution according to the different modalities on the first day and 1 mL of sterile water in the following days of the experiment period. The experiment was carried out for 4 weeks. The percentage of seed germination was measured according to the method described elsewhere [11]. Quantitative data were expressed as means of triplicate experiment.

2.4.2. In Vitro Preliminary Test of Pathogenicity for Fungal Strains on Germination of L. perenne Seeds

In total, 150 seeds were disinfected with 12° sodium hypochlorite solution for 20 min and then rinsed twice with sterile distilled water for 10 min before being transferred to Petri plates containing sterile layers of filter paper [34,35]. For testing fungal strains’ pathogenicity on germination of L. perenne, the seeds were divided into 5 groups of 30 seeds, and each group (Table 2) was treated with 1 mL of the suspension adjusted to 108 spores/mL of each fungal strain separately and with a mixture of all strains (the ratio was 1/3, 1/3, 1/3) [27]. The experiment was carried out for 4 weeks. The percentage of seed germination was measured according to the previously reported method [11]. Quantitative data were expressed as means of triplicate experiments.

2.4.3. In Vitro Preventive Treatment Assay on Germination of L. perenne Seeds

For this, 510 seeds were disinfected with 12° sodium hypochlorite solution for 20 min and then rinsed twice with sterile distilled water for 10 min before being transferred to Petri plates containing sterile layers of filter paper [34,35]. In this assay, the seeds were divided into 17 groups of 30 seeds (Table 3) and were treated with 1 mL of carvacrol on the first day before being infested. The experiment was carried out for 4 weeks. The percentage of seed germination was measured as reported elsewhere [11]. Quantitative data were expressed as means of triplicate experiments.

2.5. Statistical Analysis

Quantitative data were expressed as means of triplicate experiments ± SD (standard deviation). The groups studied are greater than 2 (n > 2), follow a normal distribution, the variances of the groups are all equal, the samples are taken randomly and independently in the groups. In addition, there is a single quantitative variable: carvacrol. The significance of the difference between means was evaluated by ANOVA –IBM SPSS Statistics 21, United Kingdom. For performing multiple comparisons, Student’s t-test was used as a post hoc test. Statistically, a significant difference was considered at a threshold of α = 5% [36]. The variables that were considered as a factor in each assay are presented in Table 4.

3. Results

3.1. Antifungal Activity Assay

3.1.1. Mycelial Growth Inhibition Assay

The antifungal activity results obtained showed that all fungal species were very sensitive to carvacrol since the MIC value of carvacrol vs. F. oxysporum was 0.25 mg/mL and 0.5 mg/mL for both M. nivale and N. solani. Regarding growth inhibition percentage (GI%) of radial mycelium, the results obtained seem to show that the percentage of growth inhibition was linearly correlated to carvacrol dose up, which reached 100% at 0.5 mg/mL against all strains tested. With lower concentrations than MIC, carvacrol slightly controlled the growth of strains (Figure 2). The growth inhibition of F. oxysporum, M. nivale, and N. solani differed statistically between the different doses of carvacrol used, and the concentrations of carvacrol were statistically more efficient on F. oxysporum (See post hoc test in Table 7).

3.1.2. Spore Germination Assay

Table 5 illustrates the effect of carvacrol on the germination of fungal strains. At 0.2 mg/mL, carvacrol completely inhibited the germination of F. oxysporum spores, while for M. nivale and N. solani, the inhibition was observed at a concentration of 0.4 mg/mL.

3.1.3. Spore Destruction Assay

The results of the sporicidal effects of carvacrol on fungal strains are presented in Figure 3. Carvacrol showed a very strong sporicidal effect vs. all tested Fusarium strains. At a concentration of 0.8 mg/mL, carvacrol destroyed F. oxysporum, M. nivale, and N. solani spores immediately after 6 h, 12 h, and 24 h, respectively. After increasing the concentration (1 mg/mL), all strains’ spores were immediately destroyed after 3 h only.
Microscopic representations are presented in Figure 4. The observations showed a difference between the untreated spores (Figure 4C) and those treated with carvacrol (Figure 4A). The untreated spores have normal and intact morphology. Once treated, their envelope relaxes, resulting in swelling at the ends and increased in size. For the spores in the control tube (Figure 4B1,B2), the observations showed the appearance of germ tubes, which will later give hyphae and then mycelium.

3.2. In Vitro Preventive Treatment Assay

3.2.1. Preliminary In Vitro Tests

A first preliminary test was conducted to assess the effect of carvacrol on the germination performance of L. perenne seeds. Germination in the negative control was 85%, and 80% for seeds treated with the three doses of carvacrol (0.05, 0.1, and 0.2 mg/mL), as shown in Figure 5. The different concentrations of carvacrol had no effect on the germination performance of L. perenne seeds (p-value = 0.552); furthermore, the difference between the negative control and each carvacrol concentration were not significant (see post hoc test results in Table 7); therefore, carvacrol had no phytotoxic effect on seeds.
The results presented in Figure 6 show that M. nivale was the most phytopathogenic strain since the percentage of germination obtained with this strain was only 5% when compared to 85% for the control. F. oxysporum and N. solani can be considered less phytopathogenic since the germination percentage obtained with these strains was 36% and 53%, respectively. In the presence of the three strains, the germination percentage obtained was about 36%. It was noticed that M. nivale damages seeds, root, and coleoptile development of L. perenne plantlets, unlike F. oxysporum and N. solani, which showed a less harmful effect on the studied plant. The ANOVA test at a threshold α = 5% prove that the fungal strains had an effect on seed germination (p-value = 4.27 10−7 < 0.05). The difference between the negative control and F. oxysporum, M. nivale, and mixture of spores, also the difference between F. oxysporum and M. nivale, between M. nivale and N. solani, and between M. nivale and mixture of spores are significant (see post hoc test results in Table 7). In contrast, the difference between the negative control and N. solani, as well as the difference between F. oxysporum and N. solani, between F. oxysporum and mixture of spores, between N. solani and mixture of spores are not significant (see post hoc test results in Table 7).

3.2.2. In Vitro Preventive Treatment Assay

Figure 7 shows the preventive effect of carvacrol on the germination capacity of L. perenne seeds. The results obtained showed that most of the carvacrol doses tested reestablished the emergence of L. perenne seeds in comparison with the negative and positive controls (see the results of ANOVA tests and post hoc tests in Table 6 and Table 7, respectively). The preventive treatment with carvacrol also showed satisfactory results even in the case of seeds infested by a mixture of spores. The results obtained showed also serious diseases occurred in nontreated plantlets when compared to treatments.

4. Discussion

The present work aimed to find room for the intervention of natural products to mitigate fungal species attacking grasses. To achieve this goal, carvacrol, as an environmentally friendly agent, was tested in vitro to control fungal species responsible for seeds’ damping-off diseases.
The results obtained showed that carvacrol investigated in the present work can meet the requirement for being environmentally friendly argent to control strains spores due to its results in inhibiting this pathogenic strain. The findings obtained showed that carvacrol seriously controlled the tested genera even at low concentrations (MIC values ranged from 0.2 to 0.4 mg/mL). These results are consistent with those previously reported elsewhere [32,37], which showed that essential oil with natural carvacrol had an inhibitory effect on germination of Fusarium oxysporum f. dianthi spores. As regards the effect of carvacrol against N. solani, the MIC was 0.21 mg/mL. Moreover, earlier works reported closer MIC value For M. nivale treated with essential oils contained carvacrol [38,39,40,41]. The difference in MICs can be due to the use of different methods, in particular, the concentration of spore inoculum, effects of incubation temperature, time of reading on broth dilution, the use of detergents or solvents for carvacrol dispersion, which affect the antifungal activity [26,42]. Methods by which MIC is evaluated (liquid or agar medium), as well as the difference in culturing techniques, cannot be excluded [20,43].
The mechanism by which carvacrol kills fungal cells was investigated in earlier works [24,44], which showed that carvacrol exerts its antifungal activity by generating endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress through the alteration of ER integrity. Therefore, carvacrol acts inside the fungal cells by modifying cell metabolism. In the present study, the sporicidal effect of carvacrol on strains spores was assessed using a liquid medium. The results obtained show that carvacrol exhibited a serious sporicidal effect on the strains tested in a dose deponent manner, which reached 100% inhibition at 0.4 mg/mL. These results agree with those reported in the earlier literature, which revealed that carvacrol possesses strong inhibitory effects on Fusarium oxysporum f. dianthi [32].
The microscopic observation showed a serious sporicidal effect resulted in strains spores treated with carvacrol when compared to untreated spores. Microscopic observations revealed a serious decrease in the total number of spores in the group treated with high concentrations of carvacrol when compared to the negative control. This decrease in spore number is probably due to spore lyses. Similarly, Yamamoto-Ribeiro et al. [45] reported that spore cells of Fusarium verticillioides become deformed and devoid of cytoplasmic content after being treated with Ginger essential oil (EO) (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). These results could be explained by the fact that carvacrol acts at the level of the cell membrane. These results are corroborated by Bennis et al. and Chami et al. who elucidated the effect of clove and oregano EO on Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells [46,47]. Moreover, close results were obtained by Xing et al., who demonstrated the effect of cinnamaldehyde on Fusarium verticillioides using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) [48].
In the present study, the preventive potential effect of carvacrol was investigated in two different tests. The first was dedicated to studying the potential toxic effect of carvacrol on L. perenne seedling. Based on the results obtained, further processing was conducted to study the preventive potential. The results obtained showed that carvacrol had no toxic effects on L. perenne seedling when compared to untreated seeds since ANOVA 1 showed no significant difference (p-value > 0.05). Therefore, carvacrol did not adversely affect seedling germination at all tested doses. It is thus fitting that our results agree with those reported by Gonçalves et al., who confirmed the absence of phytotoxicity of carvacrol on tomato seeds [49]. Regarding the preventive effect of carvacrol investigated in the present work, the result obtained showed that in the absence of carvacrol, all fungal strains seriously inhibited seed germination whether individually or combined. These results were closely found to be similar to those reported by Boudoudou et al., who showed alterations in rice seed germination induced by fungal species [11]. Fusarium graminearum was the most pathogenic species to rice (Elio variety) since its inhibitory effect on seed germination reached 65%; meanwhile, M. nivale and N. solani have no serious adverse effect on germination as reported elsewhere [9,50].
The results obtained in our study showed that serious lesions occurred in the seed group inoculated with M. nivale. This notice is in accordance with the results reported in earlier work [51], in which it was reported that seeds of Rice infected by F. graminearum got changed in terms of appearance by having white, yellow, reddish, or pink spots [51].
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report concerning L. perenne seed treatment with carvacrol that resulted in inhibition of fungal diseases in seedlings without phytotoxic effects. The results obtained showed that pretreatment of seeds with carvacrol protects them against seeds damping-off disease induced by fungal species attack.

5. Conclusions

In summary, this study shed light on carvacrol as a potential alternative agent to fight fungal species that induce seeds damping-off. The results obtained showed that carvacrol seriously controlled fungal strains tested such as F. oxysporum, N. solani, and M. nivale. Therefore, carvacrol can be used as a natural weapon to protect plant seedlings from fungal disease without secondary effects on the environment. The current findings can serve as a valuable source for further research to exploit carvacrol as an environmentally friendly agent to fight seeds’ damping-off diseases.

Author Contributions

N.E.H.T. Writing—original draft preparation; H.S., formal analysis; A.E.B., M.B., and H.I., writing—review and editing; A.M.S., A.A., M.S.A., and H.K.A., funding acquisition; I.V., supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

All data reported here are available from the authors upon request.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Saud University for funding this work through research group no (RG-1441-360).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Agrios, N.G. Plant Pathology, 5th ed.; Academic Press: New York, NY, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
  2. Guo, Q.; Dong, W.; Li, S.; Lu, X.; Wang, P.; Zhang, X.; Wang, Y.; Ma, P. Fengycin produced by Bacillus subtilis NCD-2 plays a major role in biocontrol of cotton seedling damping-off disease. Microbiol. Res. 2014, 169, 533–540. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Gerhardson, B. Biological substitutes for pesticides. Trends Biotechnol. 2002, 20, 338–343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Ardakani, S.S.; Heydari, A.; Khorasani, N.; Arjmandi, R. Development of new bioformulations of Pseudomonas fluorescens and evaluation of these products against damping-off of cotton seedlings. J. Plant Pathol. 2010, 92, 83–88. [Google Scholar]
  5. Lahlali, R.; Hijri, M. Screening, identification and evaluation of potential biocontrol fungal endophytes against Rhizoctonia solani AG3 on potato plants. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 2010, 311, 152–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Ascencion, L.C.; Liang, W.-J.; Yen, T.-B. Control of Rhizoctonia solani damping-off disease after soil amendment with dry tissues of Brassica results from increase in Actinomycetes population. Biol. Control 2015, 82, 21–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Stephens, C.T.; Herr, L.J.; Schmitthenner, A.F.; Powell, C.C. Characterization of Rhizoctonia isolates associated with damping-off of bedding plants. Plant Dis. 1982, 66, 700–703. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Lamprecht, S.; Tewoldemedhin, Y. Fusarium species associated with damping-off of rooibos seedlings and the potential of compost as soil amendment for disease suppression. S. Afr. J. Bot. 2017, 110, 110–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Ahmed, N.E.; Sugimoto, Y.; Babiker, A.G.T.; Mohamed, O.E.; Ma, Y.; Inanaga, S.; Nakajima, H. Effects of Fusarium solani isolates and metabolites on Striga germination. Weed Sci. 2017, 49, 354–358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Jaber, M.H.; Lahuf, A.A. Survey, pathogenicity and molecular identification of novel Fusarium species causing seed decay and damping-off disease of wheat crop in Kerbala Province, Iraq. Plant Cell Biotechnol. Mol. Biol. 2020, 21, 1–14. [Google Scholar]
  11. Boudoudou, H.; Hassikou, R.; Touhami, A.O.; Badoc, A.; Douira, A. First demonstrations of fusariose on rice germination and plantlets. Bull. Soc. Pharm. Bordeaux 2009, 148, 45–54. [Google Scholar]
  12. Summerell, B.A.; Laurence, M.H.; Liew, E.C.Y.; Leslie, J.F. Biogeography and phylogeography of Fusarium: A review. Fungal Divers. 2010, 44, 3–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Gan, J.; Becker, J.O.; Ernst, F.F.; Hutchinson, C.; Knuteson, J.A.; Yates, S.R. Surface application of ammonium thiosulfate fertilizer to reduce volatilization of 1,3-dichloropropene from soil. Pest Manag. Sci. 2020, 56, 264–270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Amini, J.; Dzhalilov, F.S. The effects of fungicides on Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici associated with fusarium wilt of tomato. J. Plant Prot. Res. 2010, 50, 172–178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Klieber, A.; Scott, E.; Wuryatmo, E. Effect of method of application on antifungal efficacy of citral againstpostharvest spoilage fungi of citrus in culture. Australas. Plant Pathol. 2002, 31, 329–332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Amrati, F.E.Z.; Bourhia, M.; Saghrouchni, H.; Slighoua, M.; Grafov, A.; Ullah, R.; Bousta, D. Caralluma europaea (Guss.) NE Br: Anti-Inflammatory, Antifungal, and Antibacterial Activities against Nosocomial Antibiotic—Resistant Microbes of Chemically Characterized Fractions. Molecules 2021, 26, 636. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Jawhari, F.Z.; Moussaoui, A.E.; Bourhia, M.; Imtara, H.; Saghrouchni, H.; Ammor, K.; Bari, A. Anacyclus pyrethrum var. pyrethrum (L.) and Anacyclus pyrethrum var. depressus (Ball) Maire: Correlation between Total Phenolic and Flavonoid Contents with Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activities of Chemically Characterized Extracts. Plants 2021, 10, 149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  18. Agour, A.; Mssillou, I.; Saghrouchni, H.; Bari, A.; Lyoussi, B.; Derwich, E. Essential Oils of Haplophyllum tuberculatum (Forsskal) A. Juss from Morocco. Trop. J. Nat. Prod. Res. 2020, 4, 1108–1115. [Google Scholar]
  19. Saghrouchni, H.; El Barnossi, A.; Chefchaou, H.; Mzabi, A.; Tanghort, M.; Remmal, A.; Fouzia, C. Study the effect of Carvacrol, Eugenol and Thymol on Fusariums sp. responsible for Lolium perenne fusariosis. Ecol. Environ. Conserv. 2020, 26, 1059–1067. [Google Scholar]
  20. Abbaszadeh, S.; Sharifzadeh, A.; Shokri, H.; Khosravi, A. Antifungal efficacy of thymol, carvacrol, eugenol and menthol as alternative agents to control the growth of food-relevant fungi. J. Mycol. Méd. 2014, 24, e51–e56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Qiao, K.; Liu, Q.; Huang, Y.; Xia, Y.; Zhang, S. Management of bacterial spot of tomato caused by copper-resistant Xanthomonas perforans using a small molecule compound carvacrol. Crop. Prot. 2020, 132, 105114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Lahlou, R.A.; Bounechada, M.; Mohammedi, A.; Silva, L.R.; Alves, G. Dietary use of Rosmarinus officinalis and Thymus vulgaris as anticoccidial alternatives in poultry. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2021, 273, 114826. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Dinardo, F.R.; Deflorio, M.; Casalino, E.; Crescenzo, G.; Centoducati, G. Effect of feed supplementation with Origanum vulgare L. essential oil on sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax): A preliminary framework on metabolic status and growth performances. Aquac. Rep. 2020, 18, 100511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Chaillot, J.; Tebbji, F.; Remmal, A.; Boone, C.; Brown, G.W.; Bellaoui, M.; Sellam, A. The Monoterpene Carvacrol Generates Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in the Pathogenic Fungus Candida albicans. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2015, 59, 4584–4592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  25. Pujol, I.; Guarro, J.; Sala, J.; Riba, M.D. Effects of incubation temperature, inoculum size, and time of reading on broth microdilution susceptibility test results for amphotericin B fgainst Fusarium. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1997, 41, 808–811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  26. Noman, E.A.; Rahman, N.N.N.A.; Shahadat, M.; Nagao, H.; Al-Karkhi, A.F.M.; Al-Gheethi, A.; Lah, T.N.T.; Omar, A.K.M. Supercritical Fluid CO2 Technique for Destruction of Pathogenic Fungal Spores in Solid Clinical Wastes. CLEAN Soil Air Water 2016, 44, 1700–1708. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Garg, S.; Naidu, J.; Singh, S.; Nawange, S.; Jharia, N.; Saxena, M. In vitro activity of terbinafine against Indian clinical isolates of Candida albicans and non-albicans using a macrodilution method. J. Mycol. Méd. 2006, 16, 119–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Kamaruzzaman, M.; Samiul, M.A.; Ahmed, S.P.; Sultana, R. Effect of volatile organic compounds mediated fungal growth inhibition by Trichoderma asperellum HbGT6-07. Res. Sq. 2021, 1, 1–29. [Google Scholar]
  29. Peixoto-Neves, D.; Silva-Alves, K.S.; Gomes, M.D.M.; Lima, F.C.; Lahlou, S.; Magalhães, P.J.C.; Leal-Cardoso, J.H. Vasorelaxant effects of the monoterpenic phenol isomers, carvacrol and thymol, on rat isolated aorta: Original article. Fundam. Clin. Pharmacol. 2010, 24, 341–350. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Regnier, T.; Combrinck, S.; Veldman, W.; Du Plooy, W. Application of essential oils as multi-target fungicides for the control of Geotrichum citri-aurantii and other postharvest pathogens of citrus. Ind. Crops Prod. 2014, 61, 151–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Remmal, A.; Bouchikhi, T.; Tantaoui-Elaraki, A.; Ettayebi, M. Inhibition of antibacterial activity of essential oils by tween 80 and ethanol in liquid medium. J. Pharm. Belg. 1993, 48, 352–356. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  32. Hamdani, H.; Remmal, A.; Oukhouia, M.; Sennouni, C.; Jabeur, I. In-vitro Study of Anti-Fusarium Effect of Thymol, Carvacrol, Eugenol and Menthol. J. Plant Pathol. Microbiol. 2017, 8, 8–10. [Google Scholar]
  33. Tzortzakis, N.G.; Economakis, C.D. Antifungal activity of lemongrass (Cympopogon citratus L.) essential oil against key postharvest pathogens. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2007, 8, 253–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Kordali, S.; Cakir, A.; Ozer, H.; Cakmakci, R.; Kesdek, M.; Mete, E. Antifungal, phytotoxic and insecticidal properties of essential oil isolated from Turkish Origanum acutidens and its three components, carvacrol, thymol and p-cymene. Bioresour. Technol. 2008, 99, 8788–8795. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Kordali, S.; Cakir, A.; Sutay, S. Inhibitory Effects of Monoterpenes on Seed Germination and Seedling Growth. Z. Nat. C 2007, 62, 207–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  36. El Barnossi, A.; Saghrouchni, H.; Moussaid, F.; Chahmi, N.; Housseini, A.I. Microbiological study of effects of solid organic waste (chicken droppings and sheep manure) decomposed in the soil used for Pisum sativum cultivation. Int. J. Environ. Stud. 2020, 77, 830–842. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Menniti, A.; Gregori, R.; Neri, F. Activity of natural compounds on Fusarium verticillioides and fumonisin production in stored maize kernels. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2010, 136, 304–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Kong, J.; Xie, Y.-F.; Guo, Y.-H.; Cheng, Y.-L.; Qian, H.; Yao, W.-R. Biocontrol of postharvest fungal decay of tomatoes with a combination of thymol and salicylic acid screening from 11 natural agents. LWT 2016, 72, 215–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Shukla, R.; Singh, P.; Prakash, B.; Dubey, N. Antifungal, aflatoxin inhibition and antioxidant activity of Callistemon lanceolatus (Sm.) Sweet essential oil and its major component 1,8-cineole against fungal isolates from chickpea seeds. Food Control 2012, 25, 27–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. El Omari, N.; Guaouguaou, F.E.; El Menyiy, N.; Benali, T.; Aanniz, T.; Chamkhi, I.; Balahbib, A.; Taha, D.; Shariati, M.A.; Zengin, G.; et al. Phytochemical and biological activities of Pinus halepensis mill., and their ethnomedicinal use. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2021, 268, 113661. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Bouyahya, A.; Chamkhi, I.; Guaouguaou, F.-E.; Benali, T.; Balahbib, A.; El Omari, N.; Taha, D.; El-Shazly, M.; El Menyiy, N.; Fatima-Ezzahrae, G. Ethnomedicinal use, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and food benefits of Thymus capitatus. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2020, 259, 112925. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Remmal, A.; Bouchikhi, T.; Rhayour, K.; Ettayebi, M.; Tantaoui-Elaraki, A. Improved Method for the Determination of Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils in Agar Medium. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1993, 5, 179–184. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Kalemba, D.; Kunicka, A. Antibacterial and Antifungal Properties of Essential Oils. Curr. Med. Chem. 2003, 10, 813–829. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Divband, K.; Shokri, H.; Khosravi, A.R. Down-regulatory effect of Thymus vulgaris L. on growth and Tri4 gene expression in Fusarium oxysporum strains. Microb. Pathog. 2017, 104, 1–5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Yamamoto-Ribeiro, M.M.G.; Grespan, R.; Kohiyama, C.Y.; Ferreira, F.D.; Mossini, S.A.G.; Silva, E.L.; Junior, M.M. Effect of Zingiber officinale essential oil on Fusarium verticillioides and fumonisin production. Food Chem. 2013, 141, 3147–3152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  46. Chami, F.; Chami, N.; Bennis, S.; Bouchikhi, T.; Remmal, A. Oregano and clove essential oils induce surface alteration ofSaccharomyces cerevisiae. Phytother. Res. 2005, 19, 405–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Bennis, S.; Chami, F.; Chami, N.; Bouchikhi, T.; Remmal, A. Surface alteration of Saccharomyces cerevisiae induced by thymol and eugenol. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 2004, 38, 454–458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  48. Xing, F.; Hua, H.; Selvaraj, J.N.; Zhao, Y.; Zhou, L.; Liu, X.; Liu, Y. Growth inhibition and morphological alterations of Fusarium verticillioides by cinnamon oil and cinnamaldehyde. Food Control 2014, 46, 343–350. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Gonçalves, D.C.; de Queiroz, V.T.; Costa, A.V.; Lima, W.P.; Belan, L.L.; Moraes, W.B.; Iorio, N.L.P.P.; Póvoa, H.C.C. Reduction of Fusarium wilt symptoms in tomato seedlings following seed treatment with Origanum vulgare L. essential oil and carvacrol. Crop Prot. 2021, 141, 105487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Gray, L.E.; Achenbach, L.A.; Duff, R.J.; Lightfoot, D. Pathogenicity of Fusarium solani f. sp. glycines Isolates on soybean and green bean plants. J. Phytopathol. 1999, 147, 281–284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Agarwal, P.C.; Mortensen, S.N.; Mathur, C. Maladies du riz Transmises par les Semences et Tests Phytosanitaires; Ede CTA/ADRAO: Wageningen, The Netherlands, 2015; p. 95. [Google Scholar]
Agronomy 11 00985 g001 550
Figure 1. Chemical structure of carvacrol [29].
Figure 1. Chemical structure of carvacrol [29].
Agronomy 11 00985 g001
Agronomy 11 00985 g002 550
Figure 2. Variation of the growth inhibition percentage of radial mycelium as a function of carvacrol dose. The dose of carvacrol had a significant effect on GI at a threshold α = 5 % for the three studied fungal strains (p-value = 7.71 × 10−20; p-value = 1.78 × 10−23 and p-value = 5.45 × 10−17. For F. oxysporum, M. nivale, N. solani). Error bars show standard deviations.
Figure 2. Variation of the growth inhibition percentage of radial mycelium as a function of carvacrol dose. The dose of carvacrol had a significant effect on GI at a threshold α = 5 % for the three studied fungal strains (p-value = 7.71 × 10−20; p-value = 1.78 × 10−23 and p-value = 5.45 × 10−17. For F. oxysporum, M. nivale, N. solani). Error bars show standard deviations.
Agronomy 11 00985 g002
Agronomy 11 00985 g003 550
Figure 3. Time course of spore destruction after being treated with different concentrations of carvacrol. Concentrations of carvacrol: (●) 0.1 mg/mL, (■) 0.2 mg/mL, (▲) 0.4 mg/mL, (▼) 0.8 mg/mL and (♦) 1 mg/mL. Error bars show standard deviations.
Figure 3. Time course of spore destruction after being treated with different concentrations of carvacrol. Concentrations of carvacrol: (●) 0.1 mg/mL, (■) 0.2 mg/mL, (▲) 0.4 mg/mL, (▼) 0.8 mg/mL and (♦) 1 mg/mL. Error bars show standard deviations.
Agronomy 11 00985 g003
Agronomy 11 00985 g004 550
Figure 4. F. oxysporum spores observed by light microscope (magnification × 400): (A) arrows showing the swelling of the spore tips after 1 h of treatment with 1 mg/mL carvacrol; (B1,B2) arrows showing the germination of spores by the emergence of the germ tube, which will give rise to hyphae; and (C) normal spores in the negative control.
Figure 4. F. oxysporum spores observed by light microscope (magnification × 400): (A) arrows showing the swelling of the spore tips after 1 h of treatment with 1 mg/mL carvacrol; (B1,B2) arrows showing the germination of spores by the emergence of the germ tube, which will give rise to hyphae; and (C) normal spores in the negative control.
Agronomy 11 00985 g004
Agronomy 11 00985 g005 550
Figure 5. Germination percentage of L. perenne seeds treated with carvacrol. The results do not differ significantly at a threshold α = 5% (Table 6). Error bars show standard deviations.
Figure 5. Germination percentage of L. perenne seeds treated with carvacrol. The results do not differ significantly at a threshold α = 5% (Table 6). Error bars show standard deviations.
Agronomy 11 00985 g005
Agronomy 11 00985 g006 550
Figure 6. Germination percentage of L. perenne seeds infested by spores of the three fungal strains. Error bars show standard deviations.
Figure 6. Germination percentage of L. perenne seeds infested by spores of the three fungal strains. Error bars show standard deviations.
Agronomy 11 00985 g006
Agronomy 11 00985 g007 550
Figure 7. Preventive effect of carvacrol treatment on germination of infested L. perenne seeds. The concentration of carvacrol had an effect on seeds germination in all the considered cases (p-value = 1.88 × 10−5; p-value = 1.066 × 10−7; p-value = 2.42 × 10−4 and p-value = 1.168 × 10−6 for F. oxysporum, M. nivale, N. solani and mixture of spores, respectively). Error bars show standard deviations.
Figure 7. Preventive effect of carvacrol treatment on germination of infested L. perenne seeds. The concentration of carvacrol had an effect on seeds germination in all the considered cases (p-value = 1.88 × 10−5; p-value = 1.066 × 10−7; p-value = 2.42 × 10−4 and p-value = 1.168 × 10−6 for F. oxysporum, M. nivale, N. solani and mixture of spores, respectively). Error bars show standard deviations.
Agronomy 11 00985 g007
Table
Table 1. Distribution groups for the carvacrol toxicity test.
Table 1. Distribution groups for the carvacrol toxicity test.
Distribution Groups
GI30 Intact seeds
GII30 Seeds + 0.05 mg/mL of carvacrol
GIII30 Seeds + 0.1 mg/mL of carvacrol
GIV30 Seeds + 0.2 mg/mL of carvacrol
Table
Table 2. Distribution groups for pathogenicity testing of fungal strain.
Table 2. Distribution groups for pathogenicity testing of fungal strain.
Distribution Groups
GI30 Uninfested seeds
GII30 Seeds + F. oxysporum spores
GIII30 Seeds + M. nivale spores
GIV30 Seeds + N. solani spores
GV30 Seeds + mixture of all strain spores
Table
Table 3. Distribution groups for the preventive treatment assay.
Table 3. Distribution groups for the preventive treatment assay.
Distribution Groups
GI30 Intact seeds
GII30 Seeds + F. oxysporum spores
GIII30 Seeds + N. solani spores
GIV30 Seeds + M. nivale spores
GV30 Seeds + mixture of all strain spores
GVI30 Seeds + F. oxysporum spores + 0.05 mg/mL of carvacrol
GVII30 Seeds + F. oxysporum spores + 0.1 mg/mL of carvacrol
GVIII30 Seeds + F. oxysporum spores + 0.2 mg/mL of carvacrol
GIX30 Seeds + M. nivale spores + 0.05 mg/mL of carvacrol
GX30 Seeds + M. nivale spores + 0.1 mg/mL of carvacrol
GXI30 Seeds + M. nivale spores + 0.2 mg/mL of carvacrol
GXII30 Seeds + N. solani spores + 0.05 mg/mL of carvacrol
GXIII30 Seeds + N. solani spores + 0.1 mg/mL of carvacrol
GXIV30 Seeds + N. solani spores + 0.2 mg/mL of carvacrol
GXV30 Seeds + mixture of all strain spores + 0.05 mg/mL of carvacrol
GXVI30 Seeds + mixture of all strain spores + 0.1 mg/mL of carvacrol
GXVII30 Seeds + mixture of all strain spores + 0.2 mg/mL of carvacrol
Table
Table 4. The distribution of the variables studied in all experiments.
Table 4. The distribution of the variables studied in all experiments.
AssaysVariables
Growth inhibitionCarvacrol concentrations
Spores germination inhibition assayCarvacrol concentrations
Spores destruction assayCarvacrol concentrationsTime
In vitro preliminary toxicity testing for carvacrol on germination of L. perenne seedsCarvacrol concentrations
In vitro preliminary test of pathogenicity for fungal strains on germination of L. perenne seedsSpecies of fungal strains
In vitro preventive treatment assay on germination of L. perenne seedsCarvacrol concentrations
Table
Table 5. Inhibitory effects of carvacrol at various concentrations on spore germination of fungal strains.
Table 5. Inhibitory effects of carvacrol at various concentrations on spore germination of fungal strains.
StrainsNumber of Colonies (CFU)
0.1 mg/mL0.2 mg/mL0.4 mg/mL0.8 mg/mL1 mg/mL
F. oxysporum17 ± 1.000 ± 0.000 ± 0.000 ± 0.000 ± 0.00
N. solani≥30044 ± 3.500 ± 0.000 ± 0.000 ± 0.00
M.nivale288 ± 2.4023 ± 2.100 ± 0.000 ± 0.000 ± 0.00
Negative control≥300≥300≥300≥300≥300
Values are means (n = 3) ± SD.
Table
Table 6. The p-values of all results analysed by the ANOVA test.
Table 6. The p-values of all results analysed by the ANOVA test.
Assaysp-ValueStatistical Conclusion
Growth inhibitionF. oxysporum: p-value = 7.71 × 10−20 << 0.05The dose of carvacrol had a significant effect on GI at a threshold α = 5 % for the three studied fungal strains.
M. nivale: p-value = 1.78 × 10−23 << 0.05
N. solani: p-value = 5.45 × 10−17 << 0.05
In vitro preliminary toxicity testing for carvacrol on germination of L. perenne seedsp-value = 0.552 > 0.05The different concentrations of carvacrol had no effect on the germination performance of L. perenne seeds.
In vitro preliminary test of pathogenicity for fungal strains on germination of L. perenne seedsp-value = 4.27 × 10−7 << 0.05The fungal strains (including no fungal strains and a mixture of fungal species) had an effect on seed germination.
In vitro preventive treatment assay on germination of L. perenne seedsF. oxysporum: p-value = 1.88 × 10−5 << 0.05The concentrations of carvacrol had an effect on seeds germination in all the considered cases.
M. nivale: p-value = 1.0666 × 10−7 << 0.05
N. solani: p-value = 2.42 × 10−4 << 0.05
Mixture of spores: p-value = 1.168 × 10−6 << 0.05
Table
Table 7. Statistical conclusions of all results analysed by post hoc test.
Table 7. Statistical conclusions of all results analysed by post hoc test.
Difference between:Post Hoc Tests ResultsStatistical Conclusions
Figure 2. Mycelial growth inhibition of F. oxysporum0.0625 and 0.125P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 6.78 × 10−6 < 0.0083The deference is significant
0.0625 and 0.25P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 5.5 × 10−8 < 0.0083The deference is significant
0.0625 and 0.5P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 5.5 × 10−8 < 0.0083The deference is significant
0.0625 and 1P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 5.5 × 10−8 < 0.0083The deference is significant
0.0625 and 2P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 5.5 × 10−8 < 0.0083The deference is significant
Figure 2. Mycelial growth inhibition of M. nivale0.0625 and 0.125P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.00042 < 0.0083The deference is significant
0.0625 and 0.25P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 5.29 × 10−7 < 0.0083The deference is significant
0.0625 and 0.5P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 3.2 × 10−8 < 0.0083The deference is significant
0.0625 and 1P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 3.2 × 10−8 < 0.0083The deference is significant
0.0625 and 2P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 3.2 × 10−8 < 0.0083The deference is significant
Figure 2. Mycelial growth inhibition of N. solani0.0625 and 0.125P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 4.43 × 10−5 < 0.0083The deference is significant
0.0625 and 0.25P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.00075 < 0.0083The deference is significant
0.0625 and 0.5P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 4.32 × 10−9 < 0.0083The deference is significant
0.0625 and 1P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 4.32 × 10−9 < 0.0083The deference is significant
0.0625 and 2P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 4.32 × 10−9 < 0.0083The deference is significant
Figure 5. Germination percentage of L. perenne seeds treated with carvacrolNegative control and 0.05P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.32 > 0.0125The deference is not significant
Negative control and 0.1P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.16 > 0.0125The deference is not significant
Negative control and 0.2P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.32 > 0.0125The deference is not significant
0.05 and 0.1P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.93 > 0.0125The deference is not significant
0.05 and 0.2P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 1 > 0.0125The deference is not significant
0.1 and 0.2P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.93 > 0.0125The deference is not significant
Figure 6. Germination percentage of L. perenne seeds infested by spores of the three fungal strainsNegative control and F. oxysporumP(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.00016 < 0.01The deference is significant
Negative control and M. nivaleP(T ≤ t) two-tail = 1.1 × 10−5 < 0.01The deference is significant
Negative control and N. solaniP(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.013 > 0.01The deference is not significant
Negative control and Mixture of sporesP(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.00016 < 0.01The deference is significant
F. oxysporum and M. nivaleP(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.00011 < 0.01The deference is significant
F. oxysporum and N. solaniP(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.088 > 0.01The deference is not significant
F. oxysporum and Mixture of sporesP(T ≤ t) two-tail = 1 > 0.01The deference is not significant
M. nivale and N. solaniP(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.0024 < 0.01The deference is significant
M. nivale and Mixture of sporesP(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.00011 < 0.01The deference is significant
N. solani and Mixture of sporesP(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.088 > 0.01The deference is not significant
Figure 7. Preventive effect of carvacrol treatment on germination of infested L. perenne seeds by F. oxysporumNegative contol and 0.05P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.75 > 0.01The deference is not significant
Negative contol and 0.1P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.014 > 0.01The deference is not significant
Negative contol and 0.2P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.56 > 0.01The deference is not significant
Positive control and 0.05P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 1.69 × 10−5 < 0.01The deference is significant
Positive control and 0.1P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 5.7 × 10−5 < 0.01The deference is significant
Positive control and 0.2P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.0059 < 0.01The deference is significant
Figure 7. Preventive effect of carvacrol treatment on germination of infested L. perenne seeds by M. nivaleNegative contol and 0.05P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.012 > 0.01The deference is not significant
Negative contol and 0.1P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.058 > 0.01The deference is not significant
Negative contol and 0.2P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.081 > 0.01The deference is not significant
Positive control and 0.05P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 6.73 × 10−6 < 0.01The deference is significant
Positive control and 0.1P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 4.42 × 10−5 < 0.01The deference is significant
Positive control and 0.2P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.00036 < 0.01The deference is significant
Figure 7. Preventive effect of carvacrol treatment on germination of infested L. perenne seeds by N. solaniNegative contol and 0.05P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.26 > 0.01The deference is not significant
Negative contol and 0.1P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.32 > 0.01The deference is not significant
Negative contol and 0.2P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.0025 < 0.01The deference is significant
Positive control and 0.05P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.0067 < 0.01The deference is significant
Positive control and 0.1P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.026 > 0.01The deference is not significant
Positive control and 0.2P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.23 > 0.01The deference is not significant
Figure 7. Preventive effect of carvacrol treatment on germination of infested L. perenne seeds by mixture of sporesNegative contol and 0.05P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.0028 < 0.01The deference is significant
Negative contol and 0.1P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.058 > 0.01The deference is not significant
Negative contol and 0.2P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.080 > 0.01The deference is not significant
Positive control and 0.05P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.00059 < 0.01The deference is significant
Positive control and 0.1P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.00086 < 0.01The deference is significant
Positive control and 0.2P(T ≤ t) two-tail = 0.00021 < 0.01The deference is significant
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Saghrouchni, H.; El Barnossi, A.; Salamatullah, A.M.; Bourhia, M.; Alzahrani, A.; Alkaltham, M.S.; Alyahya, H.K.; Tahiri, N.E.H.; Imtara, H.; Var, I. Carvacrol: A Promising Environmentally Friendly Agent to Fight Seeds Damping-Off Diseases Induced by Fungal Species. Agronomy 2021, 11, 985. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11050985

AMA Style

Saghrouchni H, El Barnossi A, Salamatullah AM, Bourhia M, Alzahrani A, Alkaltham MS, Alyahya HK, Tahiri NEH, Imtara H, Var I. Carvacrol: A Promising Environmentally Friendly Agent to Fight Seeds Damping-Off Diseases Induced by Fungal Species. Agronomy. 2021; 11(5):985. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11050985

Chicago/Turabian Style

Saghrouchni, Hamza, Azeddin El Barnossi, Ahmad Mohammad Salamatullah, Mohammed Bourhia, Abdulhakeem Alzahrani, Mohammed Saeed Alkaltham, Heba Khalil Alyahya, Nour El Houda Tahiri, Hamada Imtara, and Işıl Var. 2021. "Carvacrol: A Promising Environmentally Friendly Agent to Fight Seeds Damping-Off Diseases Induced by Fungal Species" Agronomy 11, no. 5: 985. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11050985

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop