Utilisation of Oil Palm’s Empty Fruit Bunch Spikelets for Oil-Spill Removal
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Laboratory Scale Set Up and Sorbents Selection
2.3. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) Analysis
2.4. Statistical Experimental Design
2.4.1. One-Factor-at-a-Time (OFAT)
2.4.2. Response Surface Methodology (RSM)
Plackett–Burman Design
Central Composite Design (CCD)
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. EFB Spikelets Profile
3.2. Optimisation of Oil Absorbed Using OFAT
3.2.1. Effects of Temperature and Time on Treated EFB Spikelets
3.2.2. Effects of Packing Density on Treated EFB Spikelets
3.2.3. Effects of Oil Concentration on Treated EFB Spikelets
3.3. Optimisation of Oil Absorbed Using Response Surface Methodology (RSM)
3.3.1. Plackett–Burman Design
3.3.2. Central Composite Design (CCD)
3.3.3. Model Validation Experiment
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Code | Unit | Experimental Range | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Low (−1) | High (+1) | |||
Temperature | A | °C | 140 | 170 |
Time | B | min | 20 | 35 |
Packing density | C | g/cm3 | 0.08 | 0.11 |
Oil concentration | D | % (v/v) | 15 | 30 |
Symbol | Unit | Experimental Values | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
−2 | −1 | 0 | +1 | +2 | |||
Temperature | A | °C | 129.773 | 140 | 155 | 170 | 180.227 |
Packing density | B | g/cm3 | 0.069773 | 0.08 | 0.095 | 0.11 | 0.120227 |
Oil concentration | C | % (v/v) | 9.88655 | 15 | 22.5 | 30 | 35.1134 |
Run | A | B | C | D | Oil Absorbed | Water Absorbed |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 140 | 20 | 0.11 | 15 | 8 | 8 |
2 | 155 | 27.5 | 0.095 | 22.5 | 9.06667 | 5 |
3 | 140 | 35 | 0.11 | 30 | 9.33333 | 5.33333 |
4 | 155 | 27.5 | 0.095 | 22.5 | 9.16667 | 5.33333 |
5 | 155 | 27.5 | 0.095 | 22.5 | 9 | 5 |
6 | 140 | 35 | 0.11 | 15 | 8.3333 | 9.3333 |
7 | 155 | 27.5 | 0.095 | 22.5 | 9.33333 | 5 |
8 | 170 | 20 | 0.11 | 30 | 10.6667 | 5.33333 |
9 | 140 | 35 | 0.08 | 30 | 8 | 6 |
10 | 155 | 27.5 | 0.095 | 22.5 | 9.06667 | 5.33333 |
11 | 140 | 20 | 0.08 | 15 | 7.66667 | 6.33333 |
12 | 140 | 20 | 0.08 | 30 | 7.66667 | 5.33333 |
13 | 170 | 35 | 0.08 | 30 | 9.83333 | 4.33333 |
14 | 155 | 27.5 | 0.095 | 22.5 | 10 | 5 |
15 | 170 | 35 | 0.08 | 15 | 8 | 6 |
16 | 170 | 20 | 0.11 | 30 | 10.3333 | 5.16667 |
17 | 170 | 35 | 0.11 | 15 | 9 | 9.66667 |
18 | 170 | 20 | 0.08 | 15 | 9 | 7 |
Source | Sum of Squares | DF | Mean Square | F Value | p Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model | 10.53 | 4 | 2.63 | 14.72 | 0.0001 |
A | 5.11 | 1 | 5.11 | 28.60 | 0.0002 |
B | 0.0579 | 1 | 0.0579 | 0.3237 | 0.5799 |
C | 2.52 | 1 | 2.52 | 14.10 | 0.0027 |
D | 2.84 | 1 | 2.84 | 15.86 | 0.0018 |
Residual | 2.15 | 12 | 0.1788 | ||
Cor Total | 13.49 | 17 | |||
Std. Dev. | 0.4228 | R2 | 0.8307 | ||
Mean | 8.97 | Adjusted R2 | 0.7743 | ||
C.V. | 4.71 | Predicted R2 | 0.5857 | ||
Adequate Precision | 13.0860 |
Run Order | A | B | C | Oil Absorbed (mL) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Experimental Value | Predicted Value | ||||
1 | 155 | 0.095 | 22.5 | 8.5 | 5 |
2 | 129.773 | 0.095 | 22.5 | 5 | 6 |
3 | 140 | 0.11 | 30 | 6.33333 | 6.66667 |
4 | 140 | 0.08 | 15 | 5.33333 | 3.33333 |
5 | 140 | 0.11 | 15 | 7.33333 | 6 |
6 | 155 | 0.095 | 22.5 | 8.33333 | 4 |
7 | 155 | 0.0697731 | 22.5 | 6.33333 | 2.66667 |
8 | 155 | 0.120227 | 22.5 | 8 | 9 |
9 | 170 | 0.08 | 15 | 7 | 7.33333 |
10 | 155 | 0.095 | 22.5 | 8.33333 | 5.16667 |
11 | 170 | 0.08 | 30 | 7.16667 | 5 |
12 | 155 | 0.095 | 22.5 | 8.66667 | 4.33333 |
13 | 155 | 0.095 | 9.88655 | 7.22667 | 7.77333 |
14 | 155 | 0.095 | 22.5 | 8.16667 | 4.5 |
15 | 170 | 0.11 | 30 | 7.66667 | 5.33333 |
16 | 155 | 0.095 | 22.5 | 9 | 5 |
17 | 140 | 0.08 | 30 | 6 | 4.83333 |
18 | 170 | 0.11 | 15 | 7.33333 | 7.66667 |
19 | 155 | 0.095 | 35.1134 | 8.66667 | 8.83333 |
20 | 180.227 | 0.095 | 22.5 | 7 | 5.33333 |
Source | Sum of Squares | df | Mean Square | F-value | p Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model | 22.83 | 9 | 2.54 | 16.19 | <0.0001 | significant |
A | 4.15 | 1 | 4.15 | 26.50 | 0.0004 | |
B | 2.61 | 1 | 2.61 | 16.66 | 0.0022 | |
C | 0.4906 | 1 | 0.4906 | 3.13 | 0.1072 | |
AB | 0.2813 | 1 | 0.2813 | 1.80 | 0.2099 | |
AC | 0.0868 | 1 | 0.0868 | 0.5541 | 0.4738 | |
BC | 0.2813 | 1 | 0.2813 | 1.80 | 0.2099 | |
A2 | 12.24 | 1 | 12.24 | 78.11 | <0.0001 | |
B2 | 3.73 | 1 | 3.73 | 23.83 | 0.0006 | |
C2 | 0.7840 | 1 | 0.7840 | 5.00 | 0.0492 | |
Residual | 1.57 | 10 | 0.1567 | |||
Lack of Fit | 1.12 | 5 | 0.2244 | 2.53 | 0.1662 | not significant |
Pure Error | 0.4444 | 5 | 0.0889 | |||
Cor Total | 24.40 | 19 | ||||
R2 | 0.9358 | |||||
Std. Dev. | 0.3958 | Adjusted R2 | 0.8780 | |||
Mean | 7.37 | Predicted R2 | 0.5975 | |||
C.V.% | 5.37 | Adequate Precision | 12.6257 |
Optimised Parameters | Predicted OFAT | Predicted RSM | Experimental RSM |
---|---|---|---|
Temperature (°C) | 160 | 159.660 | 159.660 |
Packing density (g/cm3) | 0.1 | 0.098 | 0.098 |
Oil concentration (%) | 25 | 26.998 | 26.998 |
Oil absorbed (mL) | 8.667 | 8.805 | 9 |
Water absorbed (mL) | 5 | 5.213 | 5 |
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Puasa, N.A.; Ahmad, S.A.; Zakaria, N.N.; Shaharuddin, N.A.; Khalil, K.A.; Azmi, A.A.; Gomez-Fuentes, C.; Merican, F.; Zulkharnain, A.; Kok, Y.-Y.; et al. Utilisation of Oil Palm’s Empty Fruit Bunch Spikelets for Oil-Spill Removal. Agronomy 2022, 12, 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12020535
Puasa NA, Ahmad SA, Zakaria NN, Shaharuddin NA, Khalil KA, Azmi AA, Gomez-Fuentes C, Merican F, Zulkharnain A, Kok Y-Y, et al. Utilisation of Oil Palm’s Empty Fruit Bunch Spikelets for Oil-Spill Removal. Agronomy. 2022; 12(2):535. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12020535
Chicago/Turabian StylePuasa, Nurul Aini, Siti Aqlima Ahmad, Nur Nadhirah Zakaria, Noor Azmi Shaharuddin, Khalilah Abdul Khalil, Alyza Azzura Azmi, Claudio Gomez-Fuentes, Faradina Merican, Azham Zulkharnain, Yih-Yih Kok, and et al. 2022. "Utilisation of Oil Palm’s Empty Fruit Bunch Spikelets for Oil-Spill Removal" Agronomy 12, no. 2: 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12020535
APA StylePuasa, N. A., Ahmad, S. A., Zakaria, N. N., Shaharuddin, N. A., Khalil, K. A., Azmi, A. A., Gomez-Fuentes, C., Merican, F., Zulkharnain, A., Kok, Y. -Y., & Wong, C. -Y. (2022). Utilisation of Oil Palm’s Empty Fruit Bunch Spikelets for Oil-Spill Removal. Agronomy, 12(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12020535