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Article

Effects of Organic Fertilizer Application on Strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.) Cultivation

by
Hülya Sayğı
Yumurtalık Vocational School, Çukurova University, Adana 01330, Turkey
Agronomy 2022, 12(5), 1233; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12051233
Submission received: 23 March 2022 / Revised: 13 May 2022 / Accepted: 20 May 2022 / Published: 21 May 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toward Sustainability in Horticultural Crop Production Systems)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:

Simple Summary

In this study, we aimed to determine the most economical plant nutrition material that can be used as an alternative to chemical fertilizers, which are high-cost chemical plant nutrition inputs in terms of production and environmental costs. In this way, in the process of agricultural production activities, which have a great impact on nature, both the environment is protected and effective and economic sustainability is ensured.

Abstract

In the agricultural production process, the production and environmental costs of chemical fertilizers used to increase yield and quality and the question of how to evaluate the herbal and animal wastes that arise in the agricultural production process are important issues. The main purpose of using herbal and animal wastes that arise in the agricultural production process as an alternative fertilizer to chemical fertilizers is to reduce production costs and to ensure sustainability in agricultural production by reintroducing these wastes to the economy. In this study, the effects of vermicompost, chicken manure, farm manure, and chemical fertilizers on product yield and quality, plant nutrients, and economic profitability in strawberry cultivation were investigated. In the study, strawberries were used as the plant material and vermicompost, chicken manure, farm (cattle) manure, and chemical fertilizers were used as plant nutrition materials. In the study, statistically significant differences were found in the parameters of yield, quality, plant nutrient content in leaves, and economic profitability compared to chemical fertilizers. In terms of product yield and some quality parameters, organic fertilizers (worm manure and chicken manure in yield, total sugar and nitrate accumulation in fruit, chicken manure in vitamin C) gave better positive results than chemical fertilizers. In the macronutrient content of the leaves, chicken manure in terms of nitrogen and phosphorus; vermicompost, chicken manure, and farm manure in terms of potassium; and vermicompost and chicken manure in terms of calcium all gave better results than chemical fertilizers. In the micronutrient content of the leaves, chicken manure in terms of iron, vermicompost in terms of zinc, and chicken manure and farm manure in terms of copper gave better results than chemical fertilizers. In terms of economic profitability, while more profit was obtained from vermicompost, chicken manure and farm manure applications compared to chemical fertilizer applications, the highest profitability was obtained from vermicompost application. The findings of this study support the idea that vermicompost, chicken manure, and farm manure can be recommended as an alternative plant nutrition input to chemical fertilizers in strawberry cultivation.

1. Introduction

Strawberry is a fruit that is in demand in all seasons of the year, can be consumed mostly fresh, and has many uses in the food industry. Additionally, strawberry fruit is an important element of daily nutrition diets with its rich antioxidant content [1,2]. According to data from 2020, strawberry production in the world was approximately 8,861,381 tons on 384,668 ha of land, while strawberry production in Turkey was 546,525 tons on 17,978 ha of land [3]. Yield and product quality, two important factors that come to the fore in agricultural production, are also valid indicators in strawberry cultivation. There are many factors that affect yield and product quality in strawberry cultivation. Besides genetic characteristics, which are an important factor, it has been observed in studies on the subject that the conditions during the cultivation process can have an effect on plant development and fruit quality [4].
The most important factor in agricultural production is yield. Chemical fertilizers are generally used to increase the yield, but the high production and environmental costs of these fertilizers have led to the use of organic fertilizers, which can act as an alternative to chemical fertilizers. In order to increase yield, scientific studies with many different characteristics have been carried out on organic fertilizers consisting of different wastes. The scientific literature on increasing yield using organic fertilizers includes vermicompost and chicken manure used on tomatoes [5,6], cattle manure used on beans [7], and chicken manure, vermicompost, and cattle manure used on lettuce [8] and strawberries [9]. Scientific research has also been conducted on the improvement of soil properties affecting yield, increasing the amount of macro [6,10,11,12] and micro [6,8,13] plant nutrients in the soil, increasing the amount of organic matter [8,13], improving soil pH [8,13], and determining the dosage of organic fertilizers [6,8].
The product quality indicators in strawberry cultivation consist of physical properties such as fruit color, weight, and firmness and chemical properties such as sugar, acidity, vitamin C, and soluble solids content. In many scientific studies, it has been reported that strawberries grown with organic fertilizers show the same or better fruit quality characteristics than traditionally grown strawberries. Sayğı [14] reported that organic fertilizer applications in strawberry cultivation yield better results than chemical fertilizers in terms of fruit yield, quality, soil fertility, and the economy. Reganold et al. [15] reported that organic production practices in strawberry cultivation has a greater effect on fruit quality than the chemical fertilizers used in conventional production. Cayuela et al. [16] and Abu-Zahra et al. [17] reported that organic fertilizer applications in strawberry cultivation have higher vitamin C content than chemical fertilizers. Kai and Adhikari [18] in a study conducted on apples, reported that the sugar content of fruit grown with organic fertilizer applications is higher than those grown with chemical fertilizer applications. Zhang et al. [19], in a study on kiwifruit, found that organic fertilizers had a significant positive effect on fruit quality by increasing the resistant starch and water-soluble solids content of the fruit.
The most important point when dealing with the issue of organic fertilizers is that these fertilizers are produced from wastes generated in other production processes. Vermicompost is a type of fertilizer that increases the microbial activity in the soil by converting various organic wastes into organic matter through consumption by worms. Vermicompost, with its porous structure, provides aeration to the soil, increases the water holding capacity, is rich in plant nutrients, has a low carbon level, and increases the microbial activity on the soil surface by providing a slow release of nutrients to the plants, enabling them to be taken up more effectively by the plants [20,21]. Chicken manure, which is rich in the macro plant nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, is generally used in agricultural production to meet the nitrogen needs of plants, as well as to improve soil health by increasing product yield, the amount of organic matter, and water holding capacity, while at the same time providing plant nutrients in the soil via the slow release of plant nutrients, allowing them to be taken in more effectively by plants [22]. Farm manure has been used in agricultural production for a long time as a plant nutrition material rich in the macronutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium [23]. Organic fertilizers, which enrich the soil in terms of the amount of organic matter, improve the soil pH and facilitate the uptake of macro and micronutrients by plants [23,24].
The aim of this study is to investigate the use of more effective and economical organic fertilizers (vermikompost manure, chicken manure, and farm manure) as an alternative to chemical fertilizers, which have high production and environmental costs, in strawberry cultivation.

2. Material and Method

This study was carried out in Çukurova University at the Yumurtalık Vocational School Research and Application Field in Yumurtalık Town in 2017–2019. The used land is in Yumurtalık Town, which is located at sea level and 80 km away from Adana, at a latitude of 36.75° north and 35.71° East meridian.
In the study, a commercially purchased Albion strawberry variety was used as the plant material. Albion, a day neutral variety, is a strawberry variety that was bred by the University of California in 1999 and was selected from a cross between Diamante x Cal 94.16-1. Shaw and Larson [25] reported that phenotypic characteristics can vary according to growing conditions.
In the study, chicken manure, farm (cattle) manure, and vermicompost, which are organic wastes generated in agricultural production and other production and consumption processes, were used as plant nutrition materials according to the principles of organic agriculture production. Chicken and farm manure, which consist of animal wastes dried under natural sunlight conditions, were purchased from the surrounding villages and farms. The vermicompost was purchased from the local villagers who were making amateur vermicompost using red California worms.
In the study, four replications were performed according to the randomized blocks experimental design, and no application was made in the control group in the study. Cultural activities in the application area were carried out on 25 August 2019 with the summer planting method on 75 cm and 20–25 cm black polyethylene-coated bobbins with 30 × 30 cm intervals. Soil samples taken from a 30 cm depth were analyzed, and the soil properties of the study area were determined. The data obtained are presented below (Table 1).
In accordance with the program determined in the study, cultural treatments and disease and pest controls were carried out on the plants, and in this way the necessary conditions for the objectivity of the study were provided. In the study, which was carried out with four replications according to the randomized blocks trial design, eight different application subjects (1. control, 2. vermicompost, 3. farm manure, 4. chicken manure, and 5. chemical fertilizer) were evaluated. The contents of the vermicompost and chicken and farm manure used in the study are given in Table 2.
The application doses of vermicompost, chicken manure, farm manure, and chemical fertilizers used in the experiment are given in Table 3.
In the process of preparing the application area for planting, in the autumn before planting (one month before the cultural processes), the organic fertilizers were spread homogeneously on the soil surface of the application area and mixed with a hand hoe machine at a maximum depth of 10 cm. The chemical fertilizers were spread homogeneously on the soil surface 15 days before planting and mixed with a hand hoe machine to provide a maximum depth of 10 cm.
Within the scope of the study, the effects of the applications were observed in terms of yield per plant, product quality characteristics (color, fruit weight, fruit firmness, aroma, pH, water-soluble dry matter, vitamin C, and titratable acidity values), and economic parameters. The fruit quality characteristics were determined by the method of Pırlak et al. [26] according to the quality indicators used to determine fruit quality. These quality indicators were fruit color, fruit weight, aroma, total amount of soluble solids, vitamin C content, titratable acid content, and total sugar content.
In preparation for the analysis of the leaves and fruits, three plants were removed from each replication for leaf analysis. They were kept in plastic bags to prevent water loss and brought to the laboratory for analysis as soon as possible. In the laboratory, the leaves were separated from the plant body and washed in pure water and placed in paper bags. For fruit analysis, ten fruits were taken from each parcel, kept in special plastic packages to preserve the freshness of the fruits, and brought to the laboratory for analysis as soon as possible. The fruits were washed in pure water and placed in paper bags.
In order to study the pH and water-soluble solids values, the juice of the fruits sampled from each harvested product was obtained with a digital hand refractometer, and the acid value was taken as 1 mL and added to 49 mL of distilled water until the color turned rose pink when titrated with 0.1 N NaOH, and the sodium hydroxide value was determined. Citric acid calculations were conducted according to the following formula:
Acid value (%) = Citric acid constant (0.0064) × Spent NaOH × NaOH factor × Sample taken × 100
The nitrate and nitrite values in fruits were determined with the “RQflex plus 10” (Merck, Germany) device [27]. Color a and L values were determined with a Minolta C12-200 model Hunter Lab color measuring device. Macro and micronutrient values in the leaves were determined by analyzing the samples taken from the leaves in the center of the plant during the flowering period [28].
The leaf sample analysis procedure involved cleaning, washing, and drying in an oven at 65 °C until net dry weight [29]. The dried samples were ground, and 0.2 g of them was burned in glass crucibles for 8 h at 550 °C according to the dry burning method. A total of 18 mL of distilled water and 2 mL of 1/3 hydrochloric acid (HCL) were added to the burned samples, filtered through blue band filter paper and made ready for analysis, and iron, zinc, manganese, and copper values were determined by readings from an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Perkin-Elmer) device [30]. Phosphorus values were determined by the Barton method [31], and nitrogen values were determined by the Khjeldal method [32] from leaf samples.
The analysis of variance was conducted in SPSS 23. The difference between the averages was given at the p < 0.05 significance level. Analysis of variance (ONE-WAY ANOVA) and Duncan’s multiple comparisons test were used to assess whether there were significant differences between the applications.

3. Results

In Table 4, the yield per plant, fruit weight, fruit firmness, and aroma values for vermicompost, farm manure, chicken manure, and chemical fertilizer applications in strawberry cultivation are given.
The effects on yield per plant, fruit weight, and fruit firmness were determined statistically at the p < 0.05 level, while the aroma values were not affected by the applications (Table 4).
The highest yield per plant occurred with the vermicompost and chicken manure applications, and the highest fruit weight value was obtained with the application of vermicompost when compared to the control group and chemical fertilizer applications. In all applications, the fruit firmness value was in the same class compared to the control group, while the aroma value was not statistically significantly different (Table 4).
The effect of the applications on the pH, total soluble solids, titratable acid, total sugar, and vitamin C values in the fruit can be seen in Table 5.
According to the application results, it can be seen that the pH and TSS values are similar in all fertilizer applications when compared with the control group. The highest titratable acid value is similar in all fertilizer applications when compared with the control group. The highest total sugar values were obtained from the vermicompost and chicken manure applications, and the highest vitamin C values were obtained from the chicken manure application when compared to the control group and chemical fertilizer applications (Table 5).
In Table 6, the results of the effects of the applications on the L, a, and b color values and nitrate and nitrite accumulation in fruits are given.
According to our results, the L values were similar to those of the control group in all applications, while the ‘a’ and ‘b’ values were not statistically significantly different. The nitrate accumulation values were similar for chemical fertilizer applications and farm manure applications, while chemical fertilizer applications were higher when compared to the control group, vermicompost, and chicken manure applications. In terms of the nitrite accumulation values, those of chemical fertilizer applications were similar to those of vermicompost and chicken manure applications but higher than those of the control group and farm manure applications (Table 6).
In Table 7, we can see the amounts of the macronutrient elements nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and calcium as measured from the leaves of plants grown with different fertilizers.
According to our results, the highest nitrogen and phosphorus values were found for chicken manure; the highest potassium values were found for vermicompost, chicken manure, and farm manure, and the highest calcium values were found for vermicompost and chicken manure when compared with the results of chemical fertilizers (Table 7).
In Table 8, the results of the effects of the applications on the micronutrient (iron, zinc, manganese, and copper) values in the leaves are given.
According to the application results, the highest iron value was found for chicken manure; the highest zinc value was found for vermicompost, and the highest copper values were found for chicken manure and farm manure when compared to the results of the control group and chemical fertilizers. According to the application results, the manganese values in all applications were higher than in the control group, and the highest manganese value was obtained for the chemical fertilizer applications (Table 8).
Economic applicability data, which were identified as an important parameter in the literature review conducted prior to carrying out the study, are not presented clearly. In general, it is stated in the literature on plant nutrition that the input studied increases the yield and it is recommended that the method be applied. The proposed method may both be economical and increase efficiency, but it is not possible to understand this without economic data.
The effects of vermicompost, farm manure, chicken manure, and chemical fertilizer applications on the economic performance in strawberry cultivation are presented in Table 9. The income is calculated with the prices in Table 1 for the fruit and vegetable wholesale market in Mersin, and the costs are calculated with the current market prices for March 2022. According to the application results, the highest income value (TRY 10,242.00) was obtained from the vermicompost application; the highest profit value (TRY 6895.68) was obtained from the vermicompost application; the highest yield value (2448.24 kg) was obtained from the vermicompost application, and the lowest cost values (TRY 9052.00 and TRY 9642.00, respectively) were obtained from the control and chicken manure application (Table 9).

4. Discussion

Plant yield is an important agricultural performance indicator in strawberry cultivation. Fruit weight, fruit size, fruit firmness, pH, soluble solids content, titratable acidity, total sugar, vitamin C, and fruit color are important indicators of fruit quality characteristics [36].
Yield is the most important and final goal to achieve in terms of unit area efficiency in agricultural production. Yield is also the main factor that determines the income from agricultural production. The highest yield value per plant (408.04 g per plant−1) was obtained for the vermicompost application. Mufty and Taha [37], in their study investigating the effect of organic fertilizers on strawberries, reported yield values per plant from 520.06 g per plant−1 after seaweed application to the Albion strawberry variety and 542.88 g per plant−1 after humic acid application to the Rubygem variety. Balcı et al. [38] reported that the yield value per plant was 478.8 g per plant−1 in the Camarose variety and 378.6 g per plant−1 in the Sweet Charlie variety in their study investigating the effect of organic fertilizers on strawberries. Balci et al. [39] reported the yield value per plant from farm manure application to be 461.66 g per plant−1 in the Camarose variety and 395.18 g per plant−1 in the Sweet Charlie variety in their study investigating the effect of organic fertilizers on strawberries. The values described above are higher than the yield per plant obtained from our study. This can be explained by climatic conditions, differences in plant nutrition inputs, and variety characteristics. Geçer et al. [40] support our view by reporting yield values per plant of 283.70 g per plant−1 in the Albion strawberry variety, 64.41 g per plant−1 in the Sweet Charlie strawberry variety, and 307.80 g per plant−1 in the Monterey strawberry variety in their study investigating the effects of soil and climatic conditions on strawberries. The yield per plant obtained from vermicompost and chicken manure application is higher than that of chemical fertilizers. The source of this increase is the slow-release feature of vermicompost and chicken manure and the rich nitrogen content in the soil. Organic fertilizers regulate the soil pH by eliminating the organic matter deficiency of the soil and ensuring that the nitrogen element is taken up more effectively by the plant. In a study conducted on strawberries on the subject, it was reported that an increase in the NO3− concentration in the nutrient content provided higher yields [41].
As mentioned before, one of the two main foci of agricultural production is product quality, which is very important in strawberry cultivation. The quality characteristics that affect the preference of strawberry fruit by consumers are biological characteristics such as fruit appearance, fruit weight, fruit firmness, taste, aroma, and fruit color.
Shaw and Larson [25] reported that the fruit weight was 33.00 g in the patent document stating the registered characteristics of the Albion strawberry species. Çolak et al. [42] reported a fruit weight of 13.02 g in strawberries pollinated by bees and 11.31 g in strawberries not pollinated by bees in their study investigating the effect of bee pollination on strawberry (Albion) production. Pakyürek et al. [43] reported the highest fruit weight of 16.85 g in their study investigating the effect of seaweed on strawberry (Albion) production as a plant nutrition input. Geçer et al. [40] reported that the highest fruit weight for Albion was 12.80 g, for Sweet Charlie was 7.39 g, for San Andreas was 11.30 g, and for Monterey was 11.77 g in their study investigating the effects of climate and soil characteristics on strawberry production. According to our study findings, the highest fruit weight value (18.50 g) was obtained with vermicompost application. This value is higher than all other values except the standard fruit weight specified in the patent of the variety. According to the results of the application, the fruit weight values were higher with the vermicompost application compared to the chemical fertilizers and control group applications. In numerical terms, organic fertilizer applications performed better in terms of fruit weight. The reason for this is that organic fertilizers are rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and calcium content. Other studies on this subject also support this conclusion [41,44].
Fruit firmness, which is a feature that determines the trade of the strawberry variety in terms of access to nearby markets or far away markets, is one of the important quality parameters that ensures that the harvested fruit can reach the consumer without the use of preservatives [45,46]. Shaw and Larson [25] reported that the fruit firmness was 9.30 kg in the patent document stating the registered characteristics of the Albion strawberry species. Antunes et al. [47], in their study evaluating the post-harvest fruit quality for six strawberry cultivars, reported the fruit firmness of Albion as 5.07 kg in the first season and 11.53 kg in the second season. Pinheiro et al. [48], in their study investigating the adaptation of various species to climatic characteristics in commercial strawberry cultivation, reported a fruit firmness of 0.83 kg. In our study data, the highest fruit firmness value (18.25 kg) was obtained from chicken manure application. In our study data, the highest fruit firmness value (18.25 kg) was obtained from chicken manure application. This value is higher than the values obtained in other studies. This may be due to the effects of genetic characteristics, climatic characteristics, and the condition of the fruit during the test (such as maturity degree, fruit size, post-harvest processes, and temperature) on fruit firmness and the lack of a generally accepted standard measurement method [49]. Potassium and phosphorus affect fruit firmness in strawberries. According to leaf analysis results, the potassium [41] and phosphorus [50] values of vermicompost, chicken manure, and farm manure are numerically high, and this explains the better fruit firmness values.
The pH value in strawberry fruit is an important quality indicator that affects the taste quality of the strawberry, affecting the sourness–sweetness [45] and the fruit color. Ornelas-Paz et al. [51] reported a pH value in the range of 3.39–3.80 in their study in which they evaluated strawberry fruits (Albion) harvested at six different ripening stages in terms of their physical and chemical parameters. Akhatou et al. [52] reported a pH value in the range of 3.51–3.82 in their study investigating the effects of different cultivation cultures on fruit quality and nutritional characteristics in the cultivation of different strawberry species. Akbaş et al. [46] reported a pH value in the range of 3.15–3.81 in their study where they compared the performances of 33, 36, and 61 coded genotypes produced in the Çukurova University strawberry breeding program with Fortuna, Rubygem, and Festival commercial strawberry varieties in terms of fruit quality characteristics during a long harvest period. According to our study results, the pH value is in the range of 2.82–3.95. The pH values in our study and the pH values in other studies are comparable, although the range of pH values in our study is wider. According to our findings from the applications, it can be said that vermicompost, chicken manure, and farmyard manure applications have a positive effect on pH values with high organic matter content when compared with the control group.
The sweetness of strawberry fruit has a positive effect on consumer demand as an important quality factor for marketable fruit. Soluble solids content, of which about 80% or 90% is sugar [53], is an important element of strawberry fruit quality, which affects the taste of the fruit in this respect. Antunes et al. [47] reported that the soluble solids value for the Albion variety was 6.95% in the first period and 5.11% in the second period. Akbaş et al. [46] reported a soluble solids value in the range of 6.20–11.90% for different cultivars and genotypes. Pakyürek et al. [43] reported a soluble solids value in the range of 6.85–7.46% for the Albion strawberry variety. Cervantes et al. [54] reported a soluble solids value in the range of 8.85–12.35% in their study in which they examined the change of strawberry fruit quality characteristics over time to determine the relative fruit quality stability in different strawberry species. Temocico et al. [55] reported a soluble solids value in the range of 6.30–13.20% in their study examining the biometric, colorimetric, and biochemical properties of different cultivars and genotypes. Geçer et al. [40] reported a soluble solids value in the range of 8.70–9.80% and a value of 9.44% for Albion. According to our study findings, the soluble solids value is in the range of 7.25–8.88%, which is consistent with the value ranges obtained in other studies. Our findings support the conclusion that organic fertilizers with rich nitrogen, potassium, and calcium sources of amino acids have positive effects on the content of total soluble solids.
The pH and titratable acidity, which are indicators of fruit maturity or degree of ripening, are the first feature used to predict the consumption quality of fruit juices [56]. Titratable acidity is an important indicator of fruit quality in strawberry due to the effect of organic acids on fruit flavor. Gündüz and Özbay [57] reported a titratable acidity value in the range of 0.54–0.70% in the Albion variety in their study in which they examined the effects of hereditary structure and growing place altitude on fruit in different strawberry species. In studies carried out on the Albion variety, titratable acid values have been reported in the range of 0.69–0.88% [43] and 0.99–1.34% [47]. According to our application findings in the study, the titratable acidity value is in the range of 0.55–1.12%. This value is within the range of reported values in other studies.
The Albion strawberry variety has a relatively high sugar content compared to other strawberry varieties [58]. Paparozzi et al. [58] reported a total sugar value in the range of 2.18–16.15 mg 100 g−1 in 2010, 2.96–8.75 mg 100 g−1 in 2011, and 4.18–9.98 mg 100 g−1 in 2012 in their study in which they evaluated the variety selection in strawberry cultivation in terms of fruit yield, fruit number, fruit sweetness, and phytonutrient content. They reported a total sugar value of 16.15 mg 100 g−1 in 2010, 6.28 mg 100 g−1 in 2011, and 5.65 mg 100 g−1 in 2012 in the Albion strawberry variety [58]. Mahmood et al. [59] reported a total sugar value in strawberries in the range of 3.61–4.95 mg 100 g−1 in their study in which they evaluated selected soluble sugars and organic acids in strawberries, cherries, and mulberry fruits at different ripening stages using a high-performance liquid chromatography method. In a study conducted on different strawberry varieties, it was reported that the total sugar value was in the range of 4.44–6.28 mg 100 g−1 and the Albion strawberry variety had a value of 5.38 mg 100 g−1 [57]. According to our study findings, the total sugar value was in the range of 6.38–8.39 mg 100 g−1. The reason for the differences between these values and the values in other studies may be climatic or could be related to growing conditions for the same variety of strawberries or the genetic characteristics for different varieties of strawberries. According to our findings, it has been observed that the total sugar value in vermicompost, chicken manure, and farm manure fruit is high. The reason for this situation is the positive effect of phosphorus and potassium nutrients on the total sugar value, as has been emphasized in previous studies [50,60].
Vitamin C, which has a water-soluble structure and is an important source of antioxidants, is a very important vitamin for protecting human health [61]. Vitamin C, which can account for up to 80 mg 100 g−1 in the content of fresh strawberry fruit, is an important quality indicator [61]. The variation in vitamin C content in strawberry fruit seems to depend on cultural practices, light intensity, climatic conditions, and strawberry cultivar characteristics. Other related studies have reported that the vitamin C value ranged from 67.50–104.40 mg 100 g−1 [62], 20–40 mg 100 g−1 [61], and 49.76–113.12 mg 100 g−1 in Albion strawberries [47]; 43.10 mg 100 g−1 in 2010, 72.47 mg 100 g−1 in 2011, and 43.00 mg 100 g−1 in 2012 in Albion strawberries [58]; and 39.26–96.80 mg 100 g−1 in different strawberry genotypes [55]. According to our study findings, the vitamin C value was in the range of 34.40–39.40 mg 100 g−1. The reasons why the vitamin C value we obtained in our study is lower than in other studies may be the species characteristics of the strawberry cultivar, growing conditions, and climatic conditions. Albion is a species with low phytonutrient content compared to other species but with a high sugar content [58]. In the applications, the vitamin C value obtained from the chicken manure application was higher than the chemical fertilizers. The source of this increase is the rich nitrogen and potassium nutrients of chicken manure. It has been reported that organic fertilizers contribute positively to the vitamin C value in the fruit, while chemical fertilizers reduce this value [63].
Strawberry maturity levels are classified into five stages and have different nutritional contents. The distinctive red color [58] of strawberry fruit at different maturity levels is due to their intense anthocyan content [64]. The red color, which is an important quality indicator in terms of marketable strawberry fruit, is very important in Albion as in every strawberry variety, and according to the results obtained in one study, the red color value of Albion is more intense than that of the Monterrey variety [65]. Considering the L, a, and b values in determining the strawberry fruit color value, statistically significant differences were observed in the L value in our study, while a and b values were not found to be significant. Janurianti et al. [66] reported an L value of strawberry fruit color in the range of 57.63–18.45 in their study in which they examined the development of strawberry fruits at different maturity levels consisting of five stages. Other related studies have reported that the L value ranged from 33.90–42.40 [62]; 25.76–36.39 [50]; and 31.50–37.70 [57]. According to our study’s findings, the L value was in the range of 23.76–30.31. It can be seen that the value obtained from our findings is lower than the values from other studies. According to the application results, the L value was significant. When we compare the pH values with the control application, we can say that the pH is effective at obtaining the highest L value from the vermicompost. Anthocyanins are the substances that affect the L value in strawberries and give the fruit its color [65], and the pH [67] and nutritional elements that affect the anthocyanin content are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and iron elements [68].
Nitrate and nitrite in foods are substances that are naturally found in nature during the nitrogen cycle process. They are used extensively in agricultural production in order to increase plant protection and product quality, but they are a great threat to human health according to their ratio in the product content [69]. The acceptable daily intake determined by the World Health Organization and the European Commission Food Science Committee has been reported as 0–3.7 mg nitrate ions kg−1 body weight for nitrate and 0–0.07 mg nitrite ions kg−1 body weight for nitrite [70]. Bahadoran et al. [71] reported a nitrate value in fruits in the range of 9.65–46.80 mg 100 g−1 and a nitrite value in the range of 0.15–0.71 mg 100 g−1 in their study investigating the nitrate–nitrite content of the foodstuffs that Iranians frequently consume. Individual consumption data on French adults and children, from a study conducted to estimate dietary nitrate and nitrite intake from various foodstuffs, reported the amount of nitrate in strawberry fruit to be 77.5–110% [72]. Sprogis et al. [73] reported a nitrate accumulation value in strawberry fruit of 36–97 mg kg−1 in their study evaluating the effects of chemical fertilizers on strawberry yield and product quality. In another study in which they compared the vitamin C and nitrate contents of fruits and vegetables sold in different markets, they reported the nitrate value in strawberry fruit as 110.17–131.90 mg.kg−1 [74]. According to our findings, the nitrate value in strawberry fruit is 13.51–17.46 mg kg−1, and the nitrite value is in the range of 0.14–0.18 mg kg−1. The values in our findings are higher than the recommended daily values, but this is likely due to the genetic characteristics of this strawberry fruit, and it is low compared to the values in other studies.
Plants absorb at least 90 different elements from the air, water, and soil in various ways. While some of these are essential nutrients for the healthy development and growth of the plant, others are beneficial nutrients for healthy development and growth. Macronutrients, which have a very important role in the development of plants, product yield, and product quality, provide the necessary energy for plant growth and maintaining the general condition of the plant. Table 7 shows the macronutrient elements nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and calcium values according to the results of the leaf analysis conducted in the scope of the study in which we investigated the performance of plant nutrition materials that can be an alternative to chemical fertilizers. According to the results of the leaf analysis, the values of the macronutrients obtained from the plant nutrient inputs vermicompost, farm manure, and chicken manure showed better performance than when using chemical fertilizers. The fact that the values obtained, excluding calcium, are in the range of the reference values recommended in strawberry cultivation [33,34,35] proves the sufficiency of the plant nutrients used to nourish the plant and ensure that it is healthy. The calcium value obtained from our study findings, the recommended value for strawberry cultivation, was higher than the upper limit of the reference values. It is estimated that this situation is due to the high calcium value in the chicken manure (Table 1), and scientific studies on this subject have also come to conclusions that support this idea [75,76]. Mbatha et al. [77], in their study examining the effects of chicken manure and goat manure on the nutrient content of Sesamum alatum, reported that there was an increase in the concentration of Ca, Mg, and K and hypothesized that this was due to the release of nutrients from chicken manure and goat manure. Adekiya and Agbede [78] reported the same result regarding the increase in calcium caused by chicken manure applications in their studies on tomatoes.
Micronutrients, which are less abundant than macronutrients in plants, are beneficial elements for the growth and development of plants. According to the results of the leaf analysis carried out within the scope of the study, the iron, zinc, manganese, and copper values are close to the reference values recommended for strawberry cultivation [33,34,35]. These values provide strong evidence that the plant nutrition materials used in the study—vermicompost, chicken manure, and farm manure—exhibit sufficient performance regarding the micronutrients needed by the plants.
The ability to transform scientific and technological knowledge into new products or production processes is the basis of economic growth and development [79]. Unless scientific studies can be adapted to real life by transforming their findings into technical knowledge, they cannot find an application area; that is, they cannot produce the expected benefit. Therefore, the information obtained from scientific studies should be adapted to real life and contribute to the welfare of humanity in economic terms. The ultimate aim of this study is to prove that scientific knowledge obtained in the agricultural field can be applied by transforming economic life into adaptable technical knowledge. Adapting scientific knowledge to real life in agricultural production means increasing the wealth of the economic units produced using this information, reducing production costs, and thus increasing profitability. The economic data obtained in this study provide strong evidence that the production costs of vermicompost, chicken manure, and farm manure are lower than those of chemical fertilizers and that they can be used as alternative plant nutrition materials.

5. Conclusions

This study was carried out to investigate the possibility of alternative plant nutrient materials that can achieve performance that is similar to or better than chemical fertilizers, which come with high production and environmental costs. In this context, as a solution, organic fertilizers consisting of plant and animal wastes that occur in the agricultural production process, namely, vermicompost, chicken manure, and farm manure, were examined in terms of product yield and quality, plant nutrients, and economic profitability parameters.
According to our findings, better results were obtained from organic fertilizers. Vermicompost performed better in terms of yield and fruit weight; chicken manure performed better in terms of vitamin C; vermicompost, chicken manure, and farm manure performed better in terms of total sugar, and vermicompost and chicken manure performed better in terms of nitrate accumulation compared to chemical fertilizers.
In terms of macro–micro nutritional values in the leaves, better results were obtained when using chicken manure in terms of nitrogen, phosphorus, and iron; vermicompost, chicken manure, and farm manure in terms of potassium; vermicompost and chicken manure in terms of calcium; vermicompost in terms of zinc; and chicken manure and farm manure in terms of copper when compared with chemical fertilizers. When looking at economic profitability, better results were obtained with organic fertilizer applications (vermicompost, chicken manure, and farm manure) when compared with chemical fertilizers.
In general, when evaluated in terms of product yield and quality, organic fertilizers can be used as an alternative to chemical fertilizers because they perform the same or better than them. Thus, organic fertilizers are recommended as an alternative to chemical fertilizers, as they provide better performance in terms of economic profitability.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Table
Table 1. Micro and macronutrient analysis of the soil in the research area.
Table 1. Micro and macronutrient analysis of the soil in the research area.
YearspHN
(%)		P
(mg kg−1)		K
(mg kg−1)		Ca
(mg kg−1)		Mg
(mg kg−1)		Mn
(mg kg−1)		Cu
(mg kg−1)		Fe
(mg kg−1)
2019–20207.650.131.3816032985681.820.801.30
pH, acid or alkaline value; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; K, potassium; Ca, calcium; Mg, magnesium; Mn, manganese; Fe, iron; and Cu, copper.
Table
Table 2. Properties of the vermicompost and farm and chicken manure used in the research.
Table 2. Properties of the vermicompost and farm and chicken manure used in the research.
Organic Fertilizersmg kg−1mg kg−1
NPKCaMgFeMnZnCu
Vermicompost1.350.120.250.960.192346.0110.336.210.6
Farm manure1.680.150.602.800.282855.072.832.526.6
Chicken manure1.800.190.662.860.303452.060.2337.630.2
N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; K, potassium; Ca, calcium; Mg, magnesium; Fe, iron; Mn, manganese; Zn, zinc; and Cu, copper.
Table
Table 3. Applications, abbreviations, and application doses used in the study.
Table 3. Applications, abbreviations, and application doses used in the study.
ApplicationsAbbreviationsApplication Doses
ControlT0-
VermicompostT1250 kg da−1
Chicken manureT2250 kg da−1
Farm manureT3250 kg da−1
Chemical fertilizersT420 kg da−1 N, 10 kg da−1 P2O5, 40 kg da−1 K2O
Table
Table 4. Effects of fertilizer applications on yield per plant, fruit weight, fruit firmness, and aroma values.
Table 4. Effects of fertilizer applications on yield per plant, fruit weight, fruit firmness, and aroma values.
ApplicationsYield per Plant
(g Plant−1)		Fruit Weight
(g)		Fruit Firmness
(kg)		Aroma
Control272.22 c11.99 c13.97 b3.50
Vermicompost408.04 a18.50 a16.99 a3.73
Chicken manure383.00 a17.70 ab18.25 a3.80
Farm manure367.50 ab17.47 ab16.99 ab3.85
Chemical fertilizers309.46 bc15.50 b15.91 ab4.40
Table values a, b, and c values represent classes that determined statistical differences between application means at a significance level of p < 0.05.
Table
Table 5. Effects of fertilizer applications on fruit quality values.
Table 5. Effects of fertilizer applications on fruit quality values.
ApplicationspH
(%)		TSS
(%)		TA
(%)		Total Sugar
(mg 100 g−1)
(Glucose + Fructose)		Vitamin C
(mg 100 g−1)
Control2.82 b7.38 b0.55 b6.38 c34.40 c
Vermicompost3.95 a8.38 a0.75 ab8.39 a36.23 bc
Chicken manure3.56 ab8.88 a1.08 a8.19 a39.40 a
Farm manure3.80 a8.63 a1.12 a7.56 ab37.78 ab
Chemical fertilizers3.35 ab7.25 a0.71 ab6.96 bc36.47 bc
pH, acid or alkaline values; TSS, total soluble solids; and TA, titratable acid. Table values a, b, and c values represent classes that determined statistical differences between application means at a significance level of p < 0.05.
Table
Table 6. Effects of fertilizer applications on L, a, and b color values and nitrate and nitrite accumulation in fruits.
Table 6. Effects of fertilizer applications on L, a, and b color values and nitrate and nitrite accumulation in fruits.
ApplicationsFruit ColorNitrate Accumulation in Fruit
(mg kg−1)		Nitrite Accumulation in Fruit
(mg kg−1)
Lab
Control23.76 b33.8438.8813.51 c0.14 c
Vermicompost30.31 a31.8338.0315.50 b0.16 abc
Chicken manure26.12 ab31.5437.7516.02 b0.17 ab
Farm manure28.09 ab33.7338.2416.37 ab0.16 bc
Chemical fertilizers27.47 ab32.9338.2017.46 a0.18 a
L, illuminance between 0 and 100 (black and white); a, the red or green value of fruit; and b, the yellow or blue value of fruit. Table values a, b, and c values represent classes that determined statistical differences between application means at a significance level of p < 0.05.
Table
Table 7. Effects of fertilizer applications on the macro plant nutrient content as determined from the leaves.
Table 7. Effects of fertilizer applications on the macro plant nutrient content as determined from the leaves.
ApplicationsMacro Plant Nutrient Contents (mg kg−1)
NPKCa
Reference values *2.0–4.00.15–0.41.0–2.50.7–2.0
Control1.93 d0.27 c1.71 b1.00 c
Vermicompost2.55 c0.34 abc2.22 a2.17 a
Chicken manure3.67 a0.38 a2.44 a2.41 a
Farm manure3.16 b0.36 ab2.43 a1.54 b
Chemical fertilizers2.87 bc0.29 bc2.05 b1.49 bc
N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; K, potassium; and Ca, calcium. * [33,34,35]. Table values a, b, and c values represent classes that determined statistical differences between application means at a significance level of p < 0.05.
Table
Table 8. Effects of fertilizer applications on micronutrient contents in the leaves.
Table 8. Effects of fertilizer applications on micronutrient contents in the leaves.
ApplicationsMicro Plant Nutrient Contents (mg kg−1)
FeZnMnCu
Reference values *60–250 ppm20–50 ppm50–650 ppm3–50 ppm
Control134.50 c21.50 c60.50 c15.25 c
Vermicompost172.25 ab46.25 a130.25 ab30.00 ab
Chicken manure192.75 a35.00 b141.00 ab35.75 a
Farm manure158.75 bc34.75 b99.50 bc31.50 a
Chemical fertilizers144.50 bc28.73 bc149.00 a25.25 b
Fe, iron; Zn, zinc; Mn, manganese; and Cu, copper. * [33,34,35]. (1 ppm = 1 mg kg–1). Table values a, b, and c values represent classes that determined statistical differences between application means at a significance level of p < 0.05.
Table
Table 9. Economic analysis results of fertilizer applications in strawberry cultivation.
Table 9. Economic analysis results of fertilizer applications in strawberry cultivation.
Income–Cost Accounts (TRY *)
ControlVermi-KompostChicken ManureFarm ManureChemical Fertilizer
I Yield per Plant (g plant −1)272.22408.04383.00367.5309.46
II Total production (kg)
= (Yield per plant × 6000 plant da−1)/1000
= 6000 plant da−1 × Product yield per plant		1633.322448.242298.002205.001856.76
Total Income = II × 7 TRY (average price 7 ** TRY)11,433.2417,137.6816,086.0015,435.0012,997.32
I. Equipment and tractor rental cost (TRY da−1)400.00400.00400.00400.00400.00
II. Labor Costs (TRY da−1)2672.002672.002672.002672.002672.00
III. Material Costs (TRY da−1)4980.006170.005570.005670.005778.00
IV. Fixed Costs (TRY da−1)1000.001000.001000.001000.001000.00
Total Costs (TRY da−1) = I + II + III + IV9052.0010,242.009642.009742.009850.00
Net Profit (TRY da−1) = Total Income − Total Costs2381.246895.686444.005693.003147.32
* TRY, Currency used is Turkish Lira. ** https://www.mersin.bel.tr/hal?Gun=1&Ay=4&Yil=2021, accessed on 14 March 2022.
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Sayğı, H. Effects of Organic Fertilizer Application on Strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.) Cultivation. Agronomy 2022, 12, 1233. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12051233

AMA Style

Sayğı H. Effects of Organic Fertilizer Application on Strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.) Cultivation. Agronomy. 2022; 12(5):1233. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12051233

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sayğı, Hülya. 2022. "Effects of Organic Fertilizer Application on Strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.) Cultivation" Agronomy 12, no. 5: 1233. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12051233

APA Style

Sayğı, H. (2022). Effects of Organic Fertilizer Application on Strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.) Cultivation. Agronomy, 12(5), 1233. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12051233

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