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Article

Seaweed Oligosaccharide Synergistic Silicate Improves the Resistance of Rice Plants to Lodging Stress under High Nitrogen Level

by
Guoxiu Liu
1,
Xin Ouyang
1,
Zhiming Li
1,
Youqiang Fu
2,* and
Hong Shen
1,*
1
College of Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
2
Rice Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Guangdong Key Laboratory of New Technology in Rice Breeding/Guangdong Rice Engineering Laboratory, Guangzhou 510640, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2022, 12(8), 1750; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12081750
Submission received: 20 June 2022 / Revised: 20 July 2022 / Accepted: 22 July 2022 / Published: 25 July 2022
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Abstract

:
The objective of this study was to determine the effect of seaweed oligosaccharide synergistic silicate (Si) fertilizer (SOSSiF) on rice resistance to lodging stress. The results showed that a spraying SOSSiF decreased apparent lodging index and enhanced rice yield significantly under a high N level. The spraying test indicated that the apparent lodging rate of rice was the lowest when SOSSiF was sprayed for four times, and the dosage was 45 kg/ha each time. Morphological and anatomical analysis indicated that SOSSiF decreased plant height and the lower internode length of ZCSM and increased culm cross-sectional area and wall thickness of JNSM significantly compared with the control. Furthermore, SOSSiF enhanced bending strength of rice culm by 38.8% to 63.6%, and reduced lodging index by 36.8% to 42.6%. Chemical component analysis found that SOSSiF elevated the contents of soluble sugar, cellulose, Si, and lignin in the culms of ZCSM and JNSM. Correlation analysis revealed that the lodging index was positively correlated with the length of the lower internode, and was negatively correlated with culm bending strength and culm thickness. The above results suggested that spraying SOSSiF elevates culm contents of Si and lignin and enhances bending strength, thus improving rice lodging resistance and production.

1. Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a staple cereal crop in China. Lodging is one of the major factors limiting rice production. Lodging can cause the decreases in rice yield and quality by reducing leaf photosynthesis and assimilate accumulation, and every 2% of lodging can cause a decrease of 1% in grain yield [1,2]. Basal internodes of the rice plant play an important role in supporting the heavier upper part, including leaves, panicles, and upper stem. Upper three leaves weight and panicles weight are the key factors determining the lodging resistance [3,4]. The greater the panicle weight and the upper three leaf weight, the greater the lodging risk of rice plants. Similarly, the higher the plant height, the greater the lodging risk of plants. Though nitrogen is an important nutrient element in plants, excessive N application rates increased the lodging risk of rice plants [5]. Due to the large application of ammonia nitrogen in the early growth stage of wheat seedlings, most of the broken stems occurred in the lower or basal internodes [6].
Si, a beneficial nutrient, is usually used to enhance the toughness of plants and protect plants from biological and abiotic stresses. As a typical silicon-accumulating crop, the SiO2 content of rice stems and leaves reaches 5–10% of dry weight, significantly higher than the content of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium [1]. Si mainly exists in epidermal cells, providing structural rigidity for plants. Once deposited as silica gel, Si will not be redistributed to other parts of the plant easily [7]. Therefore, Si should be applied at the right time, dosage, or in the right form to ensure that plants achieve their potential benefits. In soy-bean, foliar application of silicon fertilizer enhanced the stem strength of soybean by increasing lignin biosynthesis, and improved lodging resistance obviously [8]. Although many reports show that silicon has a positive effect on the lodging resistance of rice, due to the differences of silicon fertilizer varieties, dosage, application period, soil types, climatic conditions, etc. The effects of Si fertilizer on improving lodging resistance of rice vary greatly in different literature.
Seaweed oligosaccharides, hydrolyzed from seaweeds enzymatically, possess various kinds of physio-logical activities and play an important role in enhancing the resistance of crops to environmental stress [9]. Application of seaweeds’ polysaccharides of 0.1 mg/mL elevated the tolerance of rice seeds to salt stress [10]. Therefore, we speculate that the combination of seaweed oligosaccharides and silicon fertilizer might improve the ability of rice to resist stress. So far, there is no report of spraying synergistic silicate fertilizer on the lodging resistance of rice plants. In the present study, we investigated the effect of a new synergistic silicate fertilizer (SOSSiF) on the lodging resistance of rice, so as to provide guidance for cultivating lodging-resistant and high-yield rice.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Site, Cultivar and Fertilizer

In 2020 and 2021, rice field trials were conducted in Xialiang Village, Baiyun District, Guangzhou City, Guangdong Province, China (23°29′45″ N, 113°31′74″ E). The rice growing season is from March to July. Figure 1a is the photos of the experimental site. In 2020 and 2021, the daily average temperature of rice growth period is 26.6 °C and 28.1 °C, respectively (Figure 1b). The rainfall of the whole rice growing season in 2021 (795.6 mm) is lower than 2020 (1099.8 mm). Soil type is paddy soil, and its physical-chemical properties are: organic matter, 15.43 g/kg; alkali hydrolyzed N, 59.02 g/kg; available P, 41.2 mg/kg; available K, 165.34 mg/kg; available Si, 86.6 mg/kg; and pH 6.80 (KCl extraction).
Rice cultivar JNSM, ZCSM, TY998, or HHZ, used in the experiments, were provided by the Institute of Rice Research, Guangdong Province Academy of Agriculture. JNSM is a conventional indica rice variety with temperature sensitivity. Its average growth period is 108 d, and its plant height is about 96 cm. ZCSM is also a conventional indica rice variety with temperature sensitivity. Its average growth period is 110 d, and its plant height is 112 cm. HHZ is a conventional late maturing indica rice variety. Its average growth pe-riod is 136 d, and its plant height is 92 cm. TY 998 is an indica three-line hybrid rice. Its average growth period is 122 d, and its plant height is 116 cm.
Seaweed oligosaccharide synergistic silicate fertilizer (SOSSiF) was prepared by the Laboratory of Root Layer Regulation, College of Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China. The concentrations of N, P2O5, K2O, SiO2, oligosaccharide, and organic matter in SOSSiF were 0.5, 0.04, 4.8, 100, 10, and 10.8 g/L, respectively. Conventional silicate fertilizer (CSiF) consists of sodium silicate, and the concentration of SiO2 in CSiF was 100 g/L. Both CSiF and SOSSiF were sprayed after a 200 × dilution.

2.2. Field Experimental Design

Three treatments were set in the experiment as follows: the control, CSiF, and SOSSiF at high N level (300 kg/ha). Each treatment was triplicated. After germination, rice seedlings were cultivated in the soil of the seedbed for 30 d, and then transplanted with a row spacing of 20 cm × 15 cm, and with three seedlings in one hole. Fertilizers were applied as shown in Table 1. Basal fertilizer Urea (200 kg/ha) and NPK compound fertilizer (N-P2O5-K2O = 17-17-17, 225 kg/ha) were used as basal fertilizer. CSiF and SOSSiF were used as topdressing. Field management, such as watering, weeding, and pest and disease control, is the same as traditional methods.

2.3. Measurement of Mechanical Parameters

At 15 d after heading, 10 main culms were sampled from each treatment cell to measure the plant height (distance between the plant base and the tip of the panicle) and the length of 3 basal individual internodes. The first internode was defined as the first elongation lower internode (>0.5 cm) near the ground, and other internodes were labeled upwards sequentially.
The internode bending strength was measured using the stem strength measuring instrument (model YYD-1, Zhejiang Tuopuyun Agricultural Technology Co., Ltd., Hangzhou, China). According to the method described by Zhang et al. [11], bending moment = distance from internode to spike top (cm) × fresh weight from the internode to the spike top (g). Lodging index = bending moment/bending strength.

2.4. Measurement of Internode Morphological and Chemical Traits

Fifteen days before rice ripening, rice plants were recorded and harvested for measurement of morphological traits. In general, plants with a plant inclination angle greater than 45 degrees are lodging plants. Apparent lodging rate was calculated using the following formula: Apparent lodging rate = the number of lodging plants in the cell/the total numbers of plants in the cell ×100%. Internode length was measured by a ruler. Culm wall thickness and culm cross sectional area were measured and calculated in the middle of internode using a vernier caliper (Digital Caliper 0–100 mm, Lugong Inc., Xiamen, China) [12]. The content of soluble sugar was determined by anthrone colorimetry [13]. The contents of cellulose, Si, and lignin were measured according to the method described by Zhang et al. [14].

2.5. Statistical Analysis

The experiments were arranged in a randomized design. Three replicates were set for each treatment in all experiments. All data were analyzed by Microsoft Excel 2016 and SAS software (the SAS Institute 1998) and expressed as mean ± SD (n = 3). ANOVA was performed for each variable with comparison of means by Duncan’s multiple range test (IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 20.0) (p < 0.05).

3. Results

3.1. Apparent Lodging Rate at High N Level

Rice lodging usually occurs in typhoon season or under the condition of excessive N application. Due to the irregular occurrence of typhoon, we investigated the effect of SOSSiF on rice lodging resistance at high N treatment (300 kg/ha). Four rice varieties, including JNSM, TY998, HHZ, and ZCSM, were selected for this experiment. It is worth noting that high N treatment increased the apparent lodging rate of rice seedlings significantly (Figure 2a). Among four rice varieties tested, ZCSM had the highest apparent lodging rate, while JNSM had the lowest. Compared with the control, spraying CSiF and SOSSiF can reduce the apparent lodging rate of rice, but under SOSSiF treatment, rice has a smaller apparent lodging rate. Compared with CSiF treatment, SOSSiF decreased the apparent lodging rate of rice plants by 24.2% to 43.4% among four cultivars, suggesting that the effect of SOSSiF on lodging resistance of rice was much better than CSiF treatment (Figure 2).
The results from Figure 2b indicated that spraying CSiF or SOSSiF increased rice yield significantly. In comparison to the control, SOSSiF treatment and CSiF treatment elevated the rice yield by 9.3–15.0% and 3.4–6.8%, respectively. The rice yield of SOSSiF treatment was higher than that of CSiF treatment.
To better understand the rice growth of four varieties in the field, typical plants were collected on the fourth day after heading, the surface layer of stems was removed, internodes were exposed, and photos were taken. The spike length, internode length, and internode thickness were also measured. Results indicated that, among four rice varieties tested, JNSM had the largest stem diameter, while ZCSM had the smallest, and that of TY998 and HHZ is in the middle. Spraying CSiF or SOSSiF had a tendency to increase the diameter of rice culm nodes (Figure 3). In the following studies, JNSM and ZCSM were used as test materials.

3.2. Impacts of Si Application Rate on Apparent Lodging Rate of Rice Plants

To find out the optimum application rate of SOSSiF, we measured the effects of different Si application rates and spraying four times on the apparent lodging rate of rice plants. Results from Figure 4a indicated that, with the increase of SOSSiF dosage, the apparent lodging rate of rice plants decreased gradually. When the dosage of SOSSi was 45 kg/ha, the apparent lodging rate reached the lowest value. Apparent lodging rate did not decrease with continuous increase of SOSSiF dosage. The apparent lodging rate of ZCSM and JNSM varieties showed a similar trend. In general, the apparent lodging rate of ZCSM was greater than that of JNSM.
In addition, we also measured the effect of different spraying times on the apparent lodging rate of rice plants when the total dosage of SOSSiF was 45 kg/ha. As shown in Figure 4b, spraying times of SOSSiF significantly influenced the apparent lodging rate of rice plants. For JNSM, the apparent lodging rate of rice plants reached the minimum when SOSSiF was sprayed three times. However, for ZCSM, the apparent lodging rate of rice reached the minimum when SOSSiF was sprayed four times. The apparent lodging rate of ZCSM was higher than that of JNSM when they were sprayed for the same number of times. These results suggest that the responses of JNSM and ZCSM to SOSSiF are different. To further investigate the internal mechanism of the difference in lodging resistance between JNSM and ZCSM, SOSSiF was sprayed four times at the dosage of 45 kg/ha in the following studies.

3.3. Effect of Different Si Treatments on Morphological Index of Rice Plants

To elucidate the reasons for the difference of lodging resistance between JNSM and ZCSM varieties, we measured the height and the lower internode length of rice plants under different Si treatments. Results from Figure 4 indicated that treatment with CSiF or SOSSiF did not influence the height and the internode length of JNSM, while it decreased those of ZCSM significantly (Figure 5a,b). Compared with the control, the lengths of the second and third internodes of ZCSM cultivar treated with SOSSiF were reduced by 27.8% and 19.3%, respectively. Moreover, the height of ZCSM treated with SOSSiF was significantly lower than that treated with CSiF (Figure 5c). It is worth mentioning that SOSSiF treatment reduced the lengths of the second and third internodes significantly. The lengths of the second and third internodes were only 72.2% and 80.7% of that of the control.

3.4. Effect of Different Si Treatments on Anatomical Traits of Rice Culms

Previous studies have revealed that plant resistance to lodging is mainly dependent on and/or influenced by internodal length, plant height, and stem bending strength [5,15]. Reduction in plant height could develop the tolerance to lodging due to a lower center of gravity and reduction of the above-ground load of plants [16]. Except for plant height and length of internode of rice plants, we also determined the effects of different Si treatments on anatomical traits of rice culms. As shown in Figure 6, SOSSiF enhanced culm wall thickness (Figure 6a) and cross section area (Figure 6c) of JNSM significantly. The culm wall thickness of SOSSiF treatment was 110% and 128% higher than that of CSiF and the control treatment, respectively. However, the number of large vascular bundles in the culm of both JNSM and ZCSM were not different among different Si treatments (Figure 6b). The cross-sectional area of JNSM stems treated with SOSSiF was increased by 14.3% and 25.0% compared with that of CSiF and control. The corresponding values for ZCSM were 8.4% and 15.2%, respectively. Culm wall thickness is substantially associated with the resistance conferred by culm diameter or cross section area. Higher lodging resistance of JNSM rather than ZCSM might be related to its larger culm thickness and cross section area. Spraying SOSSiF could improve culm cross section area of JNSM and ZCSM (Figure 6c).

3.5. Effects of Different Si Treatments on Culm Mechanical Properties

The bending resistance of rice stem is an important index of lodging resistance in rice [17]. Results from Figure 7 indicated that SOSSiF significantly increased the second internode bending strength of rice culms, and decreased bending moment and lodging index of both JNSM and ZCSM. Compared with the control, culm bending strength of JNSM and ZCSM treated with SOSSiF were increased by 75.3% and 52.1% (Figure 7a), and the bending moment of JNSM and ZCSM culms was decreased by 9.1% and 15.2% (Figure 7b), and the lodging index treated with SOSSiF was reduced by 48.2% and 44.2%, respectively (Figure 7c). Notably, CSiF did not influence the second internode bending strength, bending moment, and lodging index of both JNSM and ZCSM, while SOSSIF influenced them significantly compared with the control.

3.6. Effects of Different Si Treatments on Culm Chemical Properties

The type and quantity of chemical components in rice culm influence the mechanical strength of stem directly [18]. As shown in Figure 8, compared with the control, SOSSiF treatment increased the content of culm soluble sugar by 31.3% (JNSM) and 21.9% (ZCSM), the content of culm cellulose by 15.6% (JNSM) and 13.0% (ZCSM), the content of culm lignin by 32.8% (JNSM) and 20.0% (ZCSM), and the culm Si content by 20.2% (JNSM) and 19.8% (ZCSM), respectively. However, CSiF influenced the content of these chemicals slightly. The results suggested that the effect of SOSSiF in elevating chemical component con-tents in culm is better than that of CSiF treatment.

3.7. Correlation Analysis

Figure 9 showed the correlation analysis between lodging resistance of rice and culm physical and chemical traits. Results indicated that the apparent lodging index was extremely positively correlated with the second internode length and bending moment of rice culm, and positively correlated with the third internode length. It is worth noting that the apparent lodging index was extremely negatively correlated with bending strength, and negatively corrected with culm wall thickness, Si content, and cross section area. Plant height was positively corelated with the length of the second and third internodes. Bending strength was positively corrected with culm wall thickness, and negatively correlated with the lengths of the second and third internode. Culm wall thickness was positively correlated with the cross section area. The results indicated that the greater the culm wall thickness and cross section area, the stronger the lodging resistance of rice. The higher the Si content of rice stems, the stronger the lodging resistance, the less susceptibility to disease, and the higher the rice yield [19].

4. Discussion

Nitrogen is an important nutrient element affecting rice lodging. The more N fertilizer is applied, the higher the plant height is, and thus, the risk of rice lodging is significantly increased [5]. Under the condition of high N fertilizer, we examined the effect of SOSSiF spraying on rice lodging. Results indicated that high N treatment (300 kg/ha) increased the apparent lodging rate of four rice varieties (ZCSM, JNSM, HHZ, TY998) significantly, reaching 5.5% to 35.5%, while under the conventional N fertilizer treatment (180 kg/ha), except ZCSM, the other three rice varieties (JNSM, HHZ, TY998) had no lodging (data not shown). Our results supported the above view that high N treatment increased the lodging risk of rice plants. Consistent with our results, Liu et al. [20] found that high N treatment (450 kg/ha) enhanced the lodging index by 34.8%. It was worth mentioning that spraying SOSSiF reduced apparent lodging index and increased rice yield significantly under high N treatment (Figure 2). This might be associated with the fact that SOSSiF increases the thickness of culm wall thickness and the diameter of vascular bundle, thereby reducing the lodging index of rice. Consistent with our results, the synergistic treatment of silicon with organic carbon or beneficial elements is conducive to improving the lodging resistance of crops [21].
To explore morphological and anatomical mechanisms of SOSSiF reducing rice lodging, we measured plant height, lower internode length, culm wall thickness, cross section area, and the number of vascular bundles (Figure 5 and Figure 6). Results indicated that SOSSiF treatment did not affect the height and basal internode length of JNSM, but significantly increased culm wall thickness and cross section area of JNSM. Interestingly, SOSSiF significantly reduced the height and lower internodes of ZCSM variety, but did not affect its culm wall thickness and cross section area. These results indicated that the two varieties have different responses to SOSSiF, and their lodging resistance mechanisms might be different. JNSM might enhance its lodging resistance by increasing culm diameter and wall thickness, while ZCSM may strengthen its lodging resistance mainly by reducing plant height and lower internode length. A similar report indicated that Si application reduced the lodging index of rice, mainly by increasing the number of cell layers, culm diameter, and wall thickness of rice culms under high N treatment [20].
Culm bending resistance, bending moment, and lodging index are important characteristic indexes of rice lodging resistance [11,22]. The lodging resistance of rice basal internodes is closely related to the mechanical properties of rice stems. The greater the bending resistance of the basal stem, the stronger the lodging resistance [17]. Our results from Figure 7 supported the above view that SOSSiF significantly increased culm bending resistance and decreased the lodging index of the two rice varieties. The apparent lodging index of rice stems was significantly negatively correlated with bending resistance (Figure 9). The greater the bending resistance of internodes, the less likely rice is to be broken, and the stronger the lodging resistance [23,24].
A high lignin level in the cell wall could improve lodging resistance, suggesting target genes for the genetic modification of lignin content to breed rice lines with high lodging resistance [8,25]. The results of Figure 8 show that the application of SOSSiF fertilizer can significantly increase the contents of lignin, suggesting that SOSSiF might induce upregulated expression of lignin synthesis genes, elevating stem lignin content, and improving the mechanical strength and lodging resistance of rice plants. Similar results were also reported in Brassica napus L. [21]. In addition, an increase of soluble sugar content might enhance the material fullness of the stem and the thickness of siliceous layer on the stem epidermis, thus improving culm mechanical strength and the lodging resistance [26]. In the present study, spraying SOSSiF treatment enhanced the contents of soluble carbohydrates, cellulose, lignin, and Si in rice culm. However, spraying CSiF did not show significant stimulating effects on the above indices, suggesting that SOSSiF was more effective than CSiF in elevating chemical components of rice culm. SOSSiF contains seaweed oligosaccharides, possessing stimulating activities, and thus activates rice leaf cells, increasing water and nutrient absorption, and raising chemical accumulation and rice lodging resistance. Higher chemical content of rice culms and higher yield treated with SOSSiF rather than CSiF confirmed the above view [27].

5. Conclusions

In summary, foliar application SOSSiF could decrease lodging index and improve rice grain yield significantly under high N level. Morphological and anatomical analysis indicated that SOSSiF treatment decreased plant height and the length of the lower internode of ZCSM plants and increased the cross-sectional area of JNSM plants significantly. Meanwhile, SOSSiF treatment increased the culm accumulation of soluble sugar, cellulose, lignin, and Si of both ZCSM and JNSM. The effect of CSiF on rice lodging resistance was less than that of SOSSIF. It was worth mentioning that this is the first report for which SOSSiF has better effects in elevating rice lodging resistance than conventional Si fertilizer (sodium silicate), and spraying SOSSiF can enhance culm chemicals accumulation, thus elevating culm bending strength and lodging resistance.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.S.; methodology, H.S. and Y.F.; data analysis, G.L. and Z.L.; writing—original draft preparation, G.L. and X.O.; writing—review and editing, H.S.; funding acquisition, H.S. and Y.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The work was supported by the Opening Project of the Key Laboratory of New Rice Breeding Technology of Guangdong (2020RR005), the Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Fund Project (2021A1515010566, 2021A1515012113), and the Guangdong Key Laboratory of New Technology in Rice Breeding (2020B1212060047).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are available upon reasonable request from the authors.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Xujian Yang, Dandan Cui, Chunmei Yang, Bosi Lu, and Chaoxin Wang for their valuable help.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interest or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Figure 1. Photos of rice experimental site (a) and meteorological data changes in rice growth season (b).
Figure 1. Photos of rice experimental site (a) and meteorological data changes in rice growth season (b).
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Figure 2. Apparent lodging rate (a) and yield (b) of rice treated with different Si treatments under high N level. Different small letters above the histogram of the same rice variety indicated significant differences (p ≤ 0.05).
Figure 2. Apparent lodging rate (a) and yield (b) of rice treated with different Si treatments under high N level. Different small letters above the histogram of the same rice variety indicated significant differences (p ≤ 0.05).
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Figure 3. Photos of panicle and internode of four rice cultivars under high N level. a1, a2, and a3 indicated rice seedlings with the control, CSiF, or SOSSiF treatment, respectively. For the internodes of each rice variety, the first, second, and third internodes of rice are from right to left.
Figure 3. Photos of panicle and internode of four rice cultivars under high N level. a1, a2, and a3 indicated rice seedlings with the control, CSiF, or SOSSiF treatment, respectively. For the internodes of each rice variety, the first, second, and third internodes of rice are from right to left.
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Figure 4. Impacts of Si application rate on apparent lodging rate of rice plants under a high N level. (a) different Si dosages, (b) spraying times. Different small letters above the data of the same rice variety indicated significant differences.
Figure 4. Impacts of Si application rate on apparent lodging rate of rice plants under a high N level. (a) different Si dosages, (b) spraying times. Different small letters above the data of the same rice variety indicated significant differences.
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Figure 5. Effect of different Si treatments on morphological index of rice plants. (a) height, (b) internode length of JNSM, (c) internode length of ZCSM. Different small letters above the histogram of the same rice variety or the same node indicated significant differences.
Figure 5. Effect of different Si treatments on morphological index of rice plants. (a) height, (b) internode length of JNSM, (c) internode length of ZCSM. Different small letters above the histogram of the same rice variety or the same node indicated significant differences.
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Figure 6. Effects of different Si treatments on anatomical traits of rice culms. (a) wall thickness, (b) number of large vascular bundles, (c) cross sectional area. Different small letters above the histogram of the same rice variety indicated significant differences.
Figure 6. Effects of different Si treatments on anatomical traits of rice culms. (a) wall thickness, (b) number of large vascular bundles, (c) cross sectional area. Different small letters above the histogram of the same rice variety indicated significant differences.
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Figure 7. Effect of different Si treatments on stem mechanical properties. (a) bending strength, (b) bending moment, (c) lodging index. Different small letters above the histogram of the same rice variety indicated significant differences.
Figure 7. Effect of different Si treatments on stem mechanical properties. (a) bending strength, (b) bending moment, (c) lodging index. Different small letters above the histogram of the same rice variety indicated significant differences.
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Figure 8. Effect of different Si treatments on the contents of culm chemical components. (a) soluble sugar, (b) cellulose, (c) lignin, (d) silicon. Different small letters above the histogram of the same rice variety indicated significant differences.
Figure 8. Effect of different Si treatments on the contents of culm chemical components. (a) soluble sugar, (b) cellulose, (c) lignin, (d) silicon. Different small letters above the histogram of the same rice variety indicated significant differences.
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Figure 9. Correlation between culm traits and lodging index, bending strength in rice plants. Note: 1. lodging index; 2. plant height; 3. wall thickness; 4. the second internode length; 5. the third internode length; 6. bending strength; 7. bending moment; 8. cellulose content; 9. Si content; 10. cross sectional area. **, *: significant at p ≤ 0.01 and 0.05, respectively.
Figure 9. Correlation between culm traits and lodging index, bending strength in rice plants. Note: 1. lodging index; 2. plant height; 3. wall thickness; 4. the second internode length; 5. the third internode length; 6. bending strength; 7. bending moment; 8. cellulose content; 9. Si content; 10. cross sectional area. **, *: significant at p ≤ 0.01 and 0.05, respectively.
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Table
Table 1. Fertilizer type, application period, and rate used in this experiment.
Table 1. Fertilizer type, application period, and rate used in this experiment.
TreatmentsBasal Fertilizer
(kg/ha)		Topdressing
(kg/ha)		Foliar Spraying of Si Fertilizer (kg/ha)
1 d before
Transplanting		10 d after
Transplanting		10 d after
Transplanting		17 d after
Transplanting		24 d after
Transplanting		31 d after
Transplanting
Control200 (urea), 225 (17-17-17)100 (urea)45 (water)45 (water)45 (water)45 (water)
CSiF200 (urea), 225 (17-17-17)100 (urea)45 (CSiF)45 (CSiF)45 (CSiF)45 (CSiF)
SOSSiF200 (urea), 225 (17-17-17)100 (urea)45 (SOSSiF)45 (SOSSiF)45 (SOSSiF)45 (SOSSiF)
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Liu, G.; Ouyang, X.; Li, Z.; Fu, Y.; Shen, H. Seaweed Oligosaccharide Synergistic Silicate Improves the Resistance of Rice Plants to Lodging Stress under High Nitrogen Level. Agronomy 2022, 12, 1750. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12081750

AMA Style

Liu G, Ouyang X, Li Z, Fu Y, Shen H. Seaweed Oligosaccharide Synergistic Silicate Improves the Resistance of Rice Plants to Lodging Stress under High Nitrogen Level. Agronomy. 2022; 12(8):1750. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12081750

Chicago/Turabian Style

Liu, Guoxiu, Xin Ouyang, Zhiming Li, Youqiang Fu, and Hong Shen. 2022. "Seaweed Oligosaccharide Synergistic Silicate Improves the Resistance of Rice Plants to Lodging Stress under High Nitrogen Level" Agronomy 12, no. 8: 1750. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12081750

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