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Article

Dust Particles as a Pesticide’s Carrier in Agro-Ecosystems; Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis

by
Eli Zaady
1,*,
Shlomo Sarig
2 and
Itzhak Katra
3
1
Department of Natural Resources, Agricultural Research Organization, Institute of Plant Sciences, Gilat Research Center, Mobile Post Negev 8531100, Israel
2
The Katif Research Center, Sdot-Negev, Mobile Post Negev 85200, Israel
3
Department of Geography and Environmental Development, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 8410501, Israel
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2022, 12(8), 1826; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12081826
Submission received: 13 May 2022 / Revised: 14 June 2022 / Accepted: 29 July 2022 / Published: 31 July 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Agroecology: The Agriculture-Nature Interface)
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Abstract

:
The agricultural landscape constitutes a mosaic of various crop plots intertwined with non-disturbed natural areas. Extensive use of pesticide spraying can pollute the natural areas, causing damage to the natural food webs. The damages to the natural systems can be temporary and cumulative. Although many studies have dealt with the results of pesticide spraying drift to the natural environment, we lack knowledge on the role of dust particle transfer of pesticides. The study aims to investigate the dust particles as pesticide carriers. It examines the presence and accumulation of pesticides in vegetation and soils of the farmlands and natural areas nearby in two different climatic zones, Mediterranean and semiarid. It was hypothesized that seasonal agricultural activities affect the transport of dust particles with pesticides. The research methods included qualitative and quantitative analyses of pesticides in a hierarchy of distances from agriculture fields into natural and nearby. The renewal of the results indicated that seasonal agricultural activity leading to the transport of dust particles was a major contribution to the spatial distribution of pesticides, in both climate zones. Here we reveal results that must be an essential principle in the use of pesticides in agricultural fields, especially in nearby uninhabited areas.

1. Introduction

Dust storms are one of the significant influences on environmental, economic, and damage to human wellbeing, especially in arid zones. They can remove vast amounts of topsoil, destroy yields and pasture lands, and cover infrastructures [1]. Dust can occur naturally, e.g., pollens, volcanic ashes, and sandstorms [2,3,4,5,6,7]. These may include mineral dust, coal, and cement, and metallic dust: such as lead, cadmium, and nickel [8]; chemical dust and pesticide spray drift (pesticide movement through the air to a non-target site during or after application) [9]; organic compounds such as wood, and cotton tea dust, pollens; biohazards, and molds and spores.
Dust particles impact human health by passing through the nasal passage, reaching the lungs, and causing damage [10]. Children, the elderly, and people with respiratory disease are most at risk from breathing particle pollution. Healthy people can be affected as well, especially outdoor exercisers. Effects of breathing PM for short (hours) and long (years) periods may cause breathing difficulties, respiratory pain, diminished lung function, weakened immune systems, and increased hospitalization for pneumonia and asthma [11,12,13,14].
Excessive use of pesticides may lead to the destruction of biodiversity and the sustainability of fragile ecosystems. In addition to killing insects or weeds, pesticides can be toxic to other organisms and threaten their survival, including birds and animals, fish and other aquatic organisms, beneficial insects, and non-target plants [15,16,17].
The frequency of dust storms in the Middle East has increased and is expected to rise further under future climate change [6,7,18]. Dust storms are common in the Middle East, most frequently occurring across Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Iran, and the Sahara [19,20].
A typical farmland landscape is a mosaic of cultivated and plantation areas and undisturbed natural patches or ecological corridors [20,21]. The various activities in intensive agriculture for food security and to meet global food demand include increasing pesticide use to protect food production, which leads to concern due to potential environmental pollution and hazards to human health [12,17,21].
Pesticides are chemicals used to reduce crop pests, including insects, weeds, nematodes, fungi, and rodents. Pesticides are categorized according to their chemical composition into several main groups, for example: triazoles, quinolines, organochlorides, organophosphates, carbamates, and triazines. It is estimated that by the year 2022, global pesticide usage will increase up to 3.5 million tons annually [22,23]. Once used in the field, pesticides can undergo chemical and biological decomposition processes, which include adsorption and release, evaporation, rinsing with irrigation and rainwater, a horizontal movement towards surface water, infiltration to the groundwater, and spray transportation by wind, causing damage to the food web of the natural life nearby [24]. It was estimated that 64% of global agricultural land is at risk of pesticide pollution by more than one active ingredient, and 31% is at high risk [17].
The amount of pesticide that encounters the target pests is a small percentage of the amount applied. Most studies have reported that the rate of used pesticides that reach the target pests is less than 1%. The remainder “went elsewhere” in the environment [25], presumably exposing humans to pesticide-evoked health hazards and chronic diseases.
The information on environmental exposure to pesticides is essential due to the environmental consequences resulting from continuous exposure to these substances to human health ([23,24] and nearby natural ecosystem food webs. Undesirable side effects can occur at different levels of species, populations, or even communities and ecosystems [22,24,26].
With the increase in control of pesticide residues in agricultural products and the improvement of testing analysis, the disqualification of agricultural products by the European Community [27] is becoming increasingly common. A growing number of environmental impacts of pesticide applications are being considered by regulatory administrations and lead to restrictions on the increase in pesticides or the prevention of their use in sensitive areas. There is now a consensus that the impact of pesticides on the environment depends on the level of exposure (duration, dispersion, and concentration in the environment) and the toxicity properties of the substance [24,25,28,29].
The pesticides are applied in cultivated fields on the soil surface before germination, on the plant after germination, and during growth periods. Seasonal losses from the applied materials can reach 2% of the application and rarely exceed 10% [30]. In contrast, the atmospheric evaporation losses measured within a few days after application were 80–90 percent [25]. The dispersal and presence of pesticides in the atmosphere are likely to occur over very long distances, as evidenced by the presence of pesticides in the fog, above the ocean [31], in Arctic snow areas (Gregor and Gummer 1989) as well as in various mountainous regions [32,33,34].
Soil pesticide survival can be affected by several variables. (A) The soil moisture content and temperature significantly affect the decomposition rate by microorganisms [35,36]. (B) Chemical and photochemical decomposition (in case of dispersion on the surface) [37]. (C) Adsorption and binding to the particles of organic and mineral matter in the soil depend on the molecular structure of the pesticide [38]. (D) Absorption by foliage and plant roots is the main means of penetration of pesticides into the food chain that exposes humans and animals to their hazards [11,38,39]. (E) Evaporation from plants and soil surface to the atmosphere. (F) Movement in surface runoff and infiltration to the soil solution [39]. (G) Transfer of pesticides into the atmosphere by the emission of organic and mineral matter due to wind erosion [5,6,17,32].
Methods for reducing and preventing pesticide leakage by water have been tested and reported in the literature [40,41,42,43,44,45,46]. These include the “vegetative filter strips” tested by Sabbagh and his colleagues (2013) [47] to determine the most important input factors for quantifying the mass reduction of pesticides by water. Ucar and Hall (2001) [48,49] suggested other methods for reducing and preventing pesticide leakage by planting windbreaks to decrease pesticide-spray-drift mitigation and using vegetative buffer strips of grass and tree barriers. Nevertheless, there is a lack of knowledge on the leakage of pesticides carried by dust with the wind into nearby ecosystems.
The extent of dust particle transport and deposit in each season is greatly affected by the farming activity (Figure 1A,B). The transport distance from the source area (the farmland that had undergone pest control) could affect the pesticide’s quantity in the sedimentation area. The present study’s originality is supported by evidence that dust particle transport may carry pesticides far from the application sites, whether caused by farming management practices, local heavy vehicle disturbances, or local winds.
Yet, our qualitative and quantitative knowledge on particles as a pesticide carrier in agro-ecosystems is very limited. We hypothesized that dust emitted from topsoil erosion by wind might contain pesticides. Therefore, this study aimed to fill the knowledge gap by examining the impact of intensive agriculture on the leakage of pesticide residues to nearby areas by dust particle transport. We were motivated by the concern that pesticide residues may contribute to crop contamination of nearby organic farmlands and the natural regions and affect human health [12,13,14]. The expected results of this study are important for the management procedure of agro-ecosystems in soils that are subjected to frequent dust emission as in the eastern Mediterranean region.
Research methods included qualitative and quantitative analyses of pesticides found at different distances from intensive agricultural fields. That wind would transport pesticides carried by dust, disturbing nearby natural areas and affecting human health [12,13,14], motivated us to investigate this issue.

2. Materials and Methods

The study was conducted over 18 months. Once a month, dust, vegetation, and soil samples were collected and brought to the laboratory for analysis. The seasonality was examined over time, and the effect of the tillage practice (e.g., plowing, sowing) during the growing and harvesting stages.

2.1. Study Sites

The experimental sites are located in two different climatic zones (~100 km distance) (Figure 2): The Mediterranean site (MD-Site) and the semiarid site (SA-Site). In the Mediterranean climate, the Hasharon research site, near its neighbor forest (32°16′24″ N; 34°55′31″ E), is a natural area surrounded by the agriculture of orchards and strawberry fields (Figure S1a). The soil type is “Orthohamra” (Typic Rhodoxeralfs, Chromic Luvisols), common in the area, with a typical mechanical composition of 95% sand and 5% silt and clay. The second site is located in the semiarid climate of the northern Negev desert. The semiarid site is located in Migda Research Farm-Long-Term Agri-Ecological Research site (31°21′23″ N 34°35′24″ E) and covers 200 hectares of organic rain-fed wheat for pasture. It is located in the center of intensive agricultural land, growing irrigated crops of potatoes and orchards-mainly citrus (Figure S1b). The soil type is loess with fine Desert Alluvium (Typic Torrifluvents, Calcaric Fluvisols) with a mechanical component of 30% sand, 50% silt, and 20% clay.

2.2. Passive Dust Collectors

At each station, we used five plastic pans (47 × 31 × 10 cm) with two layers of spherical glass marbles (10–15 mm diameter) [5]. The five collectors were set perpendicular to the common wind directions, and extended 5 cm above the soil surface level. The dust was removed from the pans each month by brushing the marbles and the pan walls into sterile 50 mL tubs. The samples were taken to the laboratory for analysis.

2.3. Measurements

Dust particle collection was obtained from the dust collectors distributed at fixed distances from intensive agriculture fields [5]. (A) The dust collectors (the plastic pans) were set in a line from the fields that had undergone pest control to the nearby natural or organic farm areas. (B) The dust collectors (n = 5) were placed in fixed measuring areas (10 square meters) in each experimental site; at the field edge, 100 and 500 m from the field edge, and in the cultivated field. (C) Four random soil samples (10 cm depth, 1 kg) were collected from the upper soil layer within each fixed measuring area to examine the possibility of pesticides in the soils. (D) Five random samples (1 kg) were collected from the vegetations’ leaves (1 kg) in the fixed measuring areas in each site. Plant samples were used to examine the possibility of pesticides on and within plant foliage. (E) The measurement was performed using a laser-based instrument (ANALYSETTE 22 MicroTec Plus, FRITSCH, Idar-Oberstein, Germany). The dust samples from the collectors were tested for particle size distribution in 0.08 to 2000 μm. The sample preparation for testing involved the chemical and physical dispersion of micro-aggregates by a mechanical device and removal of distinct organic matter. Samples were dispersed in a sodium hexametaphosphate solution (0.5%) by sonication (38 kHz). Particle size distribution data were calculated using the Fraunhofer model and MaS control software (FRITSCH GmbH, Idar-Oberstein, Germany, version 1.8) [50]. The raw data output obtained was used for statistical analyses of particle size indices. (F) Identification and quantification of pesticide residues in different fractions of dust particles, vegetation, and soil samples were performed in the Katif Center Laboratory in Sdot-Negev. The laboratory for the identification and extraction of pesticides in which we performed the dust analysis for the extraction of pesticides was approved by the Israeli Authority of Laboratory Accreditation and by the relevant European Community Authorities for analysis of agricultural chemical residues according to European standard ISO/IEC 17025 [27].
The identification and quantification of pesticides in the dust were carried out by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) (Agilent 5975, Agilent Technologies, Inc., Santa Clara, CA, USA), and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS) (Micromass Quarto-Ultima, Almere, The Netherlands). These devices are able to detect the presence of many different pesticides licensed in Israel, with an accuracy of up to 1 ppb. The LC-MS/MS analysis was performed according to Martel and Lair [51], after extraction with acetonitrile and hexane at a ratio of 1:1. The GC-MS analysis was performed according to the conventional method for assessing residual pesticides by multiple reaction monitoring [38]. Standard organophosphate (OP) solutions were prepared at 1 mg/mL of each relevant analyte in acetone using neat materials (>98% purity). Further dilutions were made in hexane to prepare OP calibrant solutions. One ng/mL of tributylphosphate was used as an internal standard for gas chromatography in all samples. Identification and quantification of the target OP were done by GC/mass selective detection (MSD) in selected ion monitoring mode using an Agilant GC 6890 series (Agilent Technologies, Inc., Wilmington, DE, USA), equipped with a 5973 mass selective detector and a 30 m by 0.25 mm id. J&W capillary column (Agilent Technologies, Inc.) with a 0.25 μm df bonded phase. In addition, dust samples were tested for their morphology using a scanning electron microscope with energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS, Quanta 200, FEI, ThermoFisher Scientific, Hillsboro, OR, USA).

2.4. Statistical Analyses

Correlation was conducted between the amount of pesticide per month and the amount of dust per month. The dust collectors (n = 5) were placed in fixed measuring areas (10 square meters) in each experimental site; at the field edge, 100 and 500 m from the field edge, and in the cultivated field. The amount of accumulated aeolian dust particles was compared between the two study sites. The effect of seasons on dust particles accumulation, size distribution, and percent of particulate matter content (PM1, PM2.5, PM10) for each location within each site, (n = 15), and between sites, was analyzed seasonally using ANOVA and Tukey HSD post hoc tests (for all tests p < 0.05) in JMP® (version 14, SAS, Cary, NC, USA) (https://www.jmp.com). The dependent variables were the number of pesticides, their types, their concentration in the dust, soil, vegetation, and the amount of dust.

3. Results

It was found that seasonality is an essential component for dust particle accumulating in the collectors (Table 1). The accumulated dust, in all the collectors, ranged from 3.7 to 7.7 g per square meter in the summer, from 4.4 to 15.4 g per square meter in the autumn, 3.4 and 110.2 g per square meter in the winter, and from 14.6 to 36.4 g per square meter in the spring.
More dust is noticeable in the autumn season due to the agricultural activity around the semiarid site. The farmers prepare the fields before the winter rains (Figure S1). This work includes tillage, fertilizing, and sowing. A decrease from the edge of the field to the planted-tree locations was recorded in the summer and winter, while there was an increase in dust accumulation the semiarid site center in the autumn.
Within each study site by seasons, the highest amount of dust was obtained in the semiarid site, during winter season, in the field edge, while the highest amount of dust was obtained in the Mediterranean site in autumn (Table 1).
The PM10 amount was higher in both sites in compare to PM2.5 and PM1. In the semiarid site the highest amount was in the autumn and summer, while in the Mediterranean site the highest amount was in the summer. The same results for those seasons were obtained with PM2.5 and PM1 at the semi-arid site and the Mediterranean site (Table 2).
The dust accumulated in the dust collectors in the Mediterranean site decreased in early spring after the strawberry yields were harvested. At the semiarid site, this is the season of hay harvesting. Later, the herds’ movement to graze on the fallow produces clouds of hovering particles (Figure 1). In addition, this area is characterized by spring dust events identified with warm depressions from the west or a Red-Sea channel with an eastern axis Figure S2 [52].
It was found that the dust samples’ size distributions depend on the location at each site and seasonality (Figure 3). In the Mediterranean site, on the edge of the field, a high number of coarse particles were obtained, which reflects the sandy soil. This phenomenon was also repeated in the distance of natural locations from the fields (100 and 500 m). In the center of the semiarid site and planted-tree locations (500 m), particles were thinner. The relative proportion of the particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5 and PM10) at the field edges of the Mediterranean site is slightly low compared to the other two locations (100 and 500 m) during the summer season (Table 2). In contrast, during the winter season, the dust accumulation was found high at the location of the Mediterranean site planted tree (100 m from the edge of the field). Low values in these three sizes were found in the semiarid site, in the location of the planted trees (500 m), and in the spring, season-low values were found in the location of the center (100 m) (Table 3).
There was almost no activity in the fields in the Mediterranean site during the summer season (Table 4). In the autumn season, and antifungal pesticide (Tetraconazole) was found in the Mediterranean site on the edge of the field only. During the winter season, agricultural activity in the Mediterranean site is at its peak, and fungicides (penconazole) were found in the three locations. Insecticides (Bromopropylate, Endosulfan) were found in a semiarid site in the summer season. No pesticides were found at the two sites in the dust collectors during the other seasons (Table 4).
A more straightforward answer was found when the plant samples were examined at both sites (Table 5). Except for the agricultural field, no pesticides were found at the two sites on the field edge and far from it.

4. Discussion

Wind plays a significant role in the spatial dispersion of pesticide sprays and dust particles to nearby environments. The extent of dust particle transport and deposit in each season is greatly affected by the agricultural fields’ activity (e.g., Figure 1). These dust particles can be transported long or short distances, depending on the wind direction and velocity, accumulating in natural and inhabited places [2,53,54]. The negative effects of pesticides are not just in the area of application. Alonso et al. (2018) [55] detected glyphosate in soil particles (PM10), where no glyphosate has been applied over at least in the last 30 years. They suggested the entry of glyphosate from other sites by spray drift and deposition of sediments transported by wind.
Furthermore, they reported that 80% of rainwater samples in the Pampas region of Argentina contain glyphosate. Middleton (2017) [16], in his global review of desert dust hazards, reported that irritating material such as pesticide residue might occur depending on the source of sediments.
To strengthen the results found in Argentina [55,56], the results of the present study confirmed our hypothesis that wind in the east Mediterranean and the semiarid sites transported pesticides carried by soil-dust to nearby natural areas. Dust emissions from agricultural fields in this region were already demonstrated in our previous works [57,58] as well as the potential of atmospheric transport to several kilometers from the field [59,60]. The pesticides found in the three sample components (dust, vegetation, and soil) originate from local and regional agricultural activities and are typical of the growing seasons. For example, in the center of the semiarid site, which is supposed to be a completely organic area, we found high concentrations of Bromopropylate (a substance against mites in citrus). Citrus orchards are located about 3000 m south and north of the semiarid organic farm, indicating the substance’s transport with the dust particles into the farm area. In the strawberry fields at the Mediterranean site, the plants’ damage is caused by pathogenic fungi. Therefore, penconazole was found in samples collected in the three measured locations. Naturally, the soils of intensive agricultural fields that have been cultivated for decades contain pesticide residues in various decomposition states. Silva et al. (2019) [61] studied soil samples originating from 11 EU Member States. They showed that over 80% of the tested soils contained pesticide residues, comprising 166 different pesticide combinations. Furthermore, large samples had mixtures of two or more residues, including glyphosate and its metabolite AMPA, DDTs (DDT and its metabolites) [61]. These metabolites were also found in our study in the agricultural field at the Mediterranean site.
A high concentration of the herbicide Oxadiazon was found in the soil of the strawberry field in the Mediterranean site Figure S3. This substance was also found in high concentrations in plant remains in the same field. The variety of pesticides leaked from the agricultural field near the semiarid site included Metalaxyl and Boscalid, insecticides, and fungicides, respectively, found in the field edges.
The distance from the source is also important for the dust concentration [60,62] and pesticides. A reduction was obtained in the Mediterranean site, with the increase of distance from the edge of the field into the nearby planted trees, except for the spring season. In the strawberry fields in the Mediterranean site, the amount of dust in the autumn season is the highest. A relatively large amount of dust was found in the planted trees (500 m from the field). Most of the activity occurs during the preparation of the fields for planting the seedlings. In winter, despite being the first stage of the growth, much of the strawberry fields are covered with plastic tunnels; however, the high activity of the agricultural vehicles on the field causes the transport of particles.
The seasonal agricultural activity at the site is of great importance in creating suspended dust [2]. There is a very high increase of transported particles from the intensive farmland nearby during the winter season. At the beginning of winter, the crop cycle of cereals and potatoes is usually sown in the farmland nearby, raising heavy dust events covering the entire area. In addition, the semiarid site in northern Negev is characterized by dust storms associated with winter synoptic systems (mostly cold depressions with strong winds). They cause a significant increase in atmospheric PM10 concentrations [63] may explain the high dust amounts in the winter. In the spring, the highest accumulation rate was obtained in the planted tree location. Examining the samples’ particle size distribution showed that in the semiarid site, the size distributions are bi-model. In contrast, in the Mediterranean site, they are mostly tri-model (Figure 3), with a slightly higher average value range than semiarid site. These models may suggest the diversity of dust sources reaching the natural areas due to agricultural activity (coarse and fine size fractions).
The particulate matter of the dust particles (PM1, PM2.5 and 10 PM) has a cohesive property and a large surface area, encouraging the attachment of clay and nutrients to the soil. In wind erosion, the emission of clay and nutrients (by dust) from the soil is related to the emission of PM [56,62]. The pesticide spray was likely attached to the PM fraction [58]. The PM can be easily detached from disturbed (destruction of soil aggregates) soils due to heavy equipment for tilling the soil naturally by the wind [60]. In the semiarid site, high percentages of the PM material were obtained in the autumn and summer seasons [59,62]. In the Mediterranean site, high percentages were found in the winter season. It is assumed that due to the multiplicity of windstorms during the winter in the semiarid site in the northern Negev desert, there is also removal of PM material from the soil surface. In contrast, in the autumn and summer seasons (seasons without strong winds), the accumulation of PM material originating from agricultural activity is enabled, albeit in a limited amount, relative to winter and spring.
In the next phase of the study, tests were carried out on the content and the concentration of pesticides in the dust and soil transported from cultivated fields and plants. The pesticides found in the dust collectors are affected by the agricultural activities, typical of the crops grown at each of the two sites. For example, in the summer season, insecticides were used in plantations, such as citrus located east and south of the semiarid site. These results are unique because they provide precise data on the dust particles being carriers of pesticides. Furthermore, the variety of pesticides found at the Mediterranean site comes, probably for the most part, from the immediate area. However, the presence of a fungicide found in dust in collectors can be explained. The typical crop at the Mediterranean site where we worked was strawberry. Planting begins in the autumn and beginning of the winter when the rains and drip irrigation bring high humidity around the plants. This moisture encourages the development of pathogenic fungi in plants, such as Podosphaera aphanis. It explains the use of anti-fungal pesticides, which are allowed in the stages before the appearance of the fruit. The soil samples collected in the agricultural field and the different locations at each site showed that most of the variety and concentration of pesticides were found in the cultivated field soil (Table 6). At the same time, no pesticide residues were found on the edge of the field, in the central semiarid site, and in the planted-tree sites, while fungicide was found in the planted tree (100 m) but not far from it.

5. Conclusions

This study verified and provided precise and unique data for linked pesticides and dust in Mediterranean and semiarid regions. The current research revealed for the first time that in both sites, in two different climates—the semiarid site and the Mediterranean site, dust transport is of great significance in carrying and distributing pesticides.
A variety of pesticides were found in the soils of the Mediterranean and the semiarid farmlands. Seasonal agricultural activities, such as harvesting, plowing, sowing, and planting, increased the dust-carrying pesticides in the natural areas. Insecticides, herbicides and fungicides were found to be carried on dust particles in both sites. While in the Mediterranean site, the more humid site, the source of the accumulated dust is mainly local. In the semiarid site, pesticide leakage was obtained from the nearby fields’ agricultural activities and the pest control in the orchards in the natural and inhabited areas. Farmers, landowners, and land managers should consider dust events in carrying and distributing pesticides used in their farmlands, especially during sensitive seasons and field cultivations.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/agronomy12081826/s1, Figure S1: Dust transport by tillage and small ruminant activities in Migda organic LTER farm - semiarid site (A), and movement of goat and sheep herds (B), Figure S2: Schematic map of the eastern Mediterranean region and the research sites, Figure S3: The agricultural landscapes in the Mediterranean climate, the site with strawberry growth (A), and Migda organic LTER farm in semiarid the environment of the northern Negev desert with potato growth nearby (B).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization E.Z., I.K. and S.S.; Methodology E.Z., I.K. and S.S.; Supervision E.Z. and I.K.; Formal Analysis I.K. and S.S.; Writing—original draft preparation E.Z.; Writing—review & editing E.Z., I.K. and S.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Nekudat Hen foundation grant number 2013.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

All the data found are in the tables in the text.

Acknowledgments

Yaacov Knoll, Daniel Barkai, and Shimshon Shuker for their help in the fieldwork.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. All authors have approved the manuscript and agree with its content.

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Agronomy 12 01826 g001 550
Figure 1. Dust transport by (A) tillage and small ruminant activities in the semiarid site Migda organic LTER farm and (B) movement of goat and sheep herds.
Figure 1. Dust transport by (A) tillage and small ruminant activities in the semiarid site Migda organic LTER farm and (B) movement of goat and sheep herds.
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Figure 2. Schematic map of the Mediterranean site (1) and the semiarid site (2).
Figure 2. Schematic map of the Mediterranean site (1) and the semiarid site (2).
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Agronomy 12 01826 g003 550
Figure 3. Particle size distributions as obtained by the laser diffractometer technique. The results are displayed for each of the three different locations at the two sites examined. SA—The semiarid site, MD—The Mediterranean site.
Figure 3. Particle size distributions as obtained by the laser diffractometer technique. The results are displayed for each of the three different locations at the two sites examined. SA—The semiarid site, MD—The Mediterranean site.
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Table
Table 1. Accumulation of dust collected within each study site locations by seasons.
Table 1. Accumulation of dust collected within each study site locations by seasons.
SA-Site Field EdgeSample Weight
(g m−2)		MD-Site Field EdgeSample Weight (g m−2)
Summer7.69 ± 1.18 bSummer6.75 ± 5.35 b
Autumn 9.26 ± 2.98 bAutumn 12.50 ± 8.84 ab
Winter110.19 ± 114.67 aWinter7.37 ± 7.15 ab
Spring18.16 ± 16.75 bSpring3.61 ± 1.19 b
SA-Site (100 m) *MD-Site (100 m) *
Summer6.81 ± 2.12 cSummer5.00 ± 4.14 a
Autumn 15.37 ± 8.84 bAutumn 3.04 ± 1.55 a
Winter48.19 ± 36.26 aWinter8.49 ± 11.69 a
Spring14.63 ± 9.91 bSpring3.45 ± 1.77 a
SA-Site planted tree (500 m) **MD-Site planted-tree (500 m) **
Summer3.70 ± 2.36 bSummer3.29 ± 2.20 ab
Autumn 4.37 ± 2.32 bAutumn 1.84 ± 0.82 c
Winter3.43 ± 1.78 bWinter3.33 ± 2.89 ab
Spring36.36 ± 34.59 aSpring7.90 ± 4.19 a
SA—Semiarid site, MD—Mediterranean site. * 100 m from the field edge, ** 500 m from the field edge. The results are mean ± SD. Different letters indicate a statistical difference at p < 0.05.
Table
Table 2. Averages of the content (% by weight) of particulate matter with a diameter that is <1, 2.5, and 10 μm (PM1, PM2.5, and PM10) in accumulated dust at each site by seasons.
Table 2. Averages of the content (% by weight) of particulate matter with a diameter that is <1, 2.5, and 10 μm (PM1, PM2.5, and PM10) in accumulated dust at each site by seasons.
SA-Site-Size (µm)MD-Site-Size (µm)
SeasonPM 1PM 2.5PM 10PM 1PM 2.5PM 10
Autumn4.12 ± 0.58 a11.24 ± 1.12 a31.04 ± 0.34 a1.86 ± 0.13 b6.35 ± 0.02 ab24.88 ± 2.52 ab
Winter2.15 ± 0.73 b6.78 ± 1.90 b24.61 ± 3.86 b1.69 ± 0.53 bc5.66 ± 1.44 ab22.6 ± 3.12 b
Spring2.27 ± 0.93 b7.40 ± 2.43 b26.82 ± 3.85 ab1.57 ± 0.18 c5.74 ± 0.57 b27.84 ± 3.75 ab
Summer3.46 ± 0.72 ab10.45 ± 2.15 a30.39 ± 3.71 a2.85 ± 0.66 a8.93 ± 2.03 a32.04 ± 7.30 a
The results are mean ± SD. Different letters indicate a statistical difference at p < 0.05. SA—Semiarid site, MD—Mediterranean site.
Table
Table 3. The pesticides found in dust were collected at the various locations at each site by season.
Table 3. The pesticides found in dust were collected at the various locations at each site by season.
Site and LocationSeasonMaterialConcentration (μg/kg)Target
SA-site centerSummerBromopropylate 240 Insecticide—Against Acari in citrus and grapes
SA-site-planted-treeSummerEndosulfan 92.78 Insecticide—Acari
SA-site field edgeAutumnTetraconazole 14.5 Fungicide—Oidiopsis gossypii
MD-site field edgeWinterPenconazole 5.27 Fungicide—Oidiopsis gossypii
MD-site location [100 m]WinterPenconazole 4.14 Fungicide—Oidiopsis gossypii
MD-site planted-tree WinterPenconazole 4.93 Fungicide—Oidiopsis gossypii
SA—Semiarid site, MD—Mediterranean site.
Table
Table 4. Percent of particulate matter content (PM1, PM2.5, PM10) in dust samples by season in the three locations at each site.
Table 4. Percent of particulate matter content (PM1, PM2.5, PM10) in dust samples by season in the three locations at each site.
MD-SiteField Edge SummerSummer *Summer **Field Edge AutumnAutumn *Autumn **Field Edge WinterWinter *Winter **Field Edge SpringSpring *Spring **
PM1 2.09 3.23 3.22 2 1.83 1.76 1.54 2.27 1.25 1.49 1.44 1.77
PM2.5 6.59 10.05 10.15 6.38 6.34 6.34 5.01 7.31 4.67 5.31 5.52 6.36
PM10 23.62 35.77 36.72 22.14 25.43 27.08 19.19 25.23 23.57 23.61 29.17 30.75
SA-siteField edge SummerSummer *Summer **Field edge AutumnAutumn *Autumn **Field edge WinterWinter *Winter **Field edge SpringSpring *Spring **
PM1 2.73 3.48 4.18 4.38 4.52 3.45 2.62 2.52 1.31 2.21 1.37 3.23
PM2.5 8.13 10.83 12.38 11.77 11.99 9.95 7.68 8.06 4.59 7.47 4.94 9.8
PM10 27.19 29.5 34.46 30.97 30.74 31.41 24.23 28.65 20.96 29.23 22.38 28.84
* Location—Planted tree 100 m from the field edge, ** Location 2—Planted tree 500 m from the field edge. SA—Semiarid site, MD—Mediterranean site.
Table
Table 5. Contents of pesticides found in plant samples were collected at different locations at each site in the summer season.
Table 5. Contents of pesticides found in plant samples were collected at different locations at each site in the summer season.
SiteLocationPesticideConcentration (μg/kg)MaterialComment
(Use, Chemical Group)
SA-siteAgricultural fieldBifenthrin7InsecticideAnnual field crops, Pyrethroids
MD-siteAgricultural fieldTetraconazole34.43FungicidePuccinia sp. Oidiopsis gossypii,
Triazole
Oxadiazon535.45Herbicide Weeds and grasses in vegetable crops,
Quinoxyfen81.74FungicideOidiopsis gossypii
SA—Semiarid site, MD—Mediterranean site.
Table
Table 6. Contents and pesticides that are found in soil samples are collected at different locations at each site during the dry season.
Table 6. Contents and pesticides that are found in soil samples are collected at different locations at each site during the dry season.
SiteLocationPesticideConcentration (μg/kg)MaterialComment (Use, Chemical Group)
SA-siteAgricultural fieldBifenthrin7InsecticideAnnual field crops, Pyrethroids
Diphenylamine8InsecticideFungicide for citrus and other orchards, Phenylaniline
Chlorpyrifos11InsecticideUsed for vegetables, orchards and vineyards, Organophosphate group
Oxadiazon29HerbicidePre-emergent herbicide used for control of annual grasses and broadleaf weeds in turf in vines and trees. Active Ingredients: 2% Oxadiazon
MD-siteAgricultural fieldTetraconazole 34.43 FungicideUsed against Puccinia sp. Oidiopsis gossypii in bananas and grapes., Triazole
Oxadiazon 535.45 HerbicideSee Above
Penconazole 2.07 Fungicid Used against Oidiopsis gossypii in orchards, vegetables and flowers
P,P-DDE 9.2 a derivative of DDTDehydrohalogenation of DDT (Insecticide)
Endosulfan sulfate 73.54 Insecticide and AcaricideUsed against mites for deciduous orchards, Organochlorine
Quinoxyfen 81.74 FungicideUsed against Oidiopsis gossypii against powdery mildew in grapevines and barley crops, quinoxyfen
Field edgeOxyfluorfen 2.61 HerbicideGeneral herbicide for orchards, flowers and field crops, Diphenyl Ether
SA—Semiarid site, MD—Mediterranean site.
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Zaady, E.; Sarig, S.; Katra, I. Dust Particles as a Pesticide’s Carrier in Agro-Ecosystems; Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis. Agronomy 2022, 12, 1826. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12081826

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Zaady E, Sarig S, Katra I. Dust Particles as a Pesticide’s Carrier in Agro-Ecosystems; Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis. Agronomy. 2022; 12(8):1826. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12081826

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Zaady, Eli, Shlomo Sarig, and Itzhak Katra. 2022. "Dust Particles as a Pesticide’s Carrier in Agro-Ecosystems; Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis" Agronomy 12, no. 8: 1826. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12081826

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