Plant Allelopathy in Response to Biotic and Abiotic Factors
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Biological Factors
2.1. Plant Competition
2.2. Animals
2.3. Insects
2.4. Microorganisms
3. Abiotic Factors
3.1. Light
3.2. Temperature
3.3. Drought
3.4. Carbon Dioxide
4. Nutrient Deficiency
5. Other Environmental Factors
6. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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S.No | Factor | Target Plant | Description | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Plant competition | Rice (O. sativa) | Barnyard grass may emit signaling chemicals such as (−)-loliolide from their roots to stimulate the generation of protective metabolites such as momilactone B and tricinin in rice against competitors. | [38] |
Moreover, barnyard grass–rice system experiments showed that the proximity of competitive weeds and their root exudates can increase rice allelochemicals such as momilactones and flavone, resulting in an improvement in rice allelopathy by the chemical components in barnyard grass root exudates. | [48] | |||
B. rapa ssp. | Elicitor application of salicylic acid (SA) and methyl jasmonate (MJ) induces a targeted rhizosecretion of high levels of anticarcinogenic glucosinolates in the turnip organs, as well as in turnip root exudates. | [49] | ||
E. plantagineum | E. plantagineum is a noxious invasive weed in Australia forming monocultural stands in pastures and rangelands. It produces a naphthoquinones (NQs) which suppress competition from weeds, insects, and pathogens, and influence invasion success. | [57] | ||
pigweed (A. retroflexus L.) | Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) root exudates repressed pigweed growth when both plant species were growing next to each other, and pigweed recognition by buckwheat induced changes in the buckwheat root exudation profile. | [24] | ||
Sorghum (S. bicolor) | The root exudate of sorghum includes sorgoleone, which was discharged in crucial amounts in the presence of a crude extract of velvet leaf root, indicating that seedlings could have increased phytotoxicity and improved allelopathic potential in the presence of other plants. | [60] | ||
Wheat (T. aestivum) | Many studies have shown that some wheat varieties can produce benzoxazinoids such as DIMBOA against different pests, most notably in allelopathy, influencing the germination and development of weeds in a wheat crop. | [71,72] | ||
2 | Animals | Nicotiana attenuate, Arabidopsis, maize, Chinese cabbage | As a reaction to herbivory, plants can alter their phenotype to increase certain compounds or synthesize new chemicals. | [81,82,83] |
Algae | Herbivores trigger induced protection (the generation of allelochemicals such as phlorotannin) by damaging macroalgae. | [73] | ||
Higher plants (Mulberry) | When plants are attacked by herbivores, lignin and tannin are released to affect herbivores. Lignin affects the digestion and absorption of livestock, and tannin reduces the feeding rate of animals. | [85] | ||
Rice | Herbivore feeding enhances the chemosensory effect of rice. | [88] | ||
3 | Insects | Cabbage leaves, maize seedlings, N. attenuata system, tomato | When plants are damaged by phytophagous insects, they can release some volatile secondary metabolites have an important role to play in regulating the interrelationship between plants, phytophagous insects, and their natural enemies. | [100] |
Arabidopsis thaliana L., Brassica vegetables (Brassica napus L., B. rapa, and B. juncea) | Glucosinolates are unique to cruciferous plants, and their chemical combination and discharge can be induced by insect feeding. | [103] | ||
A. conyzoides | The main ecological function of volatiles from A. conyzoides affected by E. cichoracearum DC. or exposed to aphid feeding may not be to affect neighboring plant development. Infection and aphid feeding are, in fact, more destructive to A. conyzoides than competition with neighboring plants | [75] | ||
Maize | When the beet moth feeds on corn, the corn releases volatile terpene molecules into the air, triggering a chemical defense mechanism that attracts the moth’s natural enemies, parasitic wasps. | [108] | ||
A. thaliana | Studies of plant–insect interactions, especially in multitrophic systems, have the potential to identify insect signaling chemicals that may elicit plant defense responses. | [109] | ||
4 | Microorganisms | tomato (S. lycopersicum) | Jasmonic acid (JA)- and salicylic acid (SA)-regulated defensive pathways in tomato beneficial root endophytes (Trichoderma spp.) induced resistance to the root knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita. | [50] |
E. plantagineum | When sensing elicitors of pathogen origin, many plants can accumulate allelochemicals around infection sites of pathogens. | [59] | ||
Solanum nigrum, Digitaria sanguinalis, Ipomoea purpurea | Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMFs) could induce the accumulation and synthesis of allelochemicals in the tissues of host plants, impacting their allelopathic potential. AMFs have an important role in enhancing different plants’ allelochemicals. | [111] |
S.No | Factor | Target Plant | Description | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Light | Cynara cardunculus L. | A previous study suggested that 60% plant shading in cultivated cardoons increased the sesquiterpene lactone content and phytotoxicity of its leaf extracts. | [42] |
Toxicodendron radicans L., Parthenocissus quinquefolia L., Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb, Lonicera japonica Thunb, and Vitis vulpina L. | Photoinduced allelochemicals can increase the success rate of liana substitution by making liana redistribute resources according to light differences during early forest regeneration. Understanding how allelopathic potential changes with light accessibility may help with clarifying the dynamic role of allelochemicals in plant communities. | [120] | ||
Fagus sylvatica L. | Changes in light quality can also affect the production of allelochemicals in plants. | [122] | ||
O. sativa | After UV irradiation, plants release mycorolactone B. UV radiation increases the concentration of momilactone B in the shoots and roots of rice seedlings. | [123] | ||
Mentha × piperita L. | In the case of mint, abiotic stressors such as UV radiation induce the production of mint essential oils, the main ingredients of which are monoterpenes. | [124] | ||
2. | temperature | Synechococcus spp. | High temperature could induce the generation of enormous amounts of ROS in algae, which benefits the oxidation of halide ions, carotenoids, and fatty acids, driving the formation of halogenated hydrocarbons, GLVs, and carotenoid degradants | [41] |
E. plantagineum | E. plantagineum roots exposed to the highest temperature regime appeared to show improved accumulation of naphthoquinones over time in contrast to roots created for the lowest temperature treatment. Allelochemicals such as deoxyshikonin, dimethylshikonin, and shikonin showed significantly higher concentrations over time in roots exposed to a high-temperature regime. | [57] | ||
M. aeruginosa | Climatic warming and eutrophication may lead to a shift in Microcystis populations toward blooms that contain a more prominent rate of toxic Microcystis cells and, consequently, more noteworthy concentrations of microcystin. When the temperature is over 25.8 °C, with a further increase in temperature, some toxic or nontoxic M. aeruginosa strains will release more allelochemicals to inhibit the growth of the green alga Chlorella vulgaris Beyerinck. | [74] | ||
O. sativa | The rice cultivar Koshihikari may produce more syringic, p-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic, sinapic, and benzoic acids, which conceivably suppress the plants’ growth. Extracts and root exudates had the highest amount of total phenolic and flavonoid substances when rice seedlings were treated at 37 °C under abiotic stress. | [125] | ||
R. officinalis | Some researchers found that the discharge of monoterpenes from rosemary (R. officinalis) was significantly higher in the high-temperature season than in other seasons, and its release was significantly influenced by the environment. | [126] | ||
V. faba | Allelopathy of the extract increased V. faba root tip cells’ toxicity, with more prominent inhibition of cell mitosis, and induced a higher frequency of chromosomal aberrations and micronucleus. At high temperatures, the impact of allelopathy was more prominent than at low temperatures. | [127] | ||
H. lanatus and A. pratensis | It has been observed that simultaneous exposure to high temperature and dry stress brought about an accumulation of allelochemicals in the roots and stimulation of secondary metabolites in the foliage of H. lanatus and A. pratensis. | [128] | ||
3. | Drought | E. plantagineum | E. plantagineum, under stress, including drought and elevated temperature, showed improved generation of shikonins, including those related to improved allelopathic or weed-suppressive activity and those acting as potent antimicrobials. | [57] |
B. pilosa | B. pilosa appeared to enhance phytotoxicity in periods of drought. | [112] | ||
T. erecta | Under water deficiency, the level of phenolic substances in T. erecta was much higher than that in normal water conditions. | [130] | ||
P. sativum | Drought stress triggers accumulation of ROS and bioaccumulation of bioactive chemicals such as terpenes, phenols, and alkaloids to facilitate defense against pathogens, insects, and weeds. Water stress (45% of field water capacity) and treatment with prohydrojasmon before sowing seem to improve the chemosensory resistance to grass induction in a few tested wheat varieties. | [131] | ||
A. thaliana | The biosynthesis of anthocyanins by A. thaliana improved under drought conditions, and generation was related to protection against drought stress | [132] | ||
4. | Carbon dioxide | R. officinalis | The monoterpene of R. officinalis was significantly enhanced with an increase in CO2 concentration, particularly in the high-temperature season compared to other seasons | [126] |
B. napus | Elevated carbon dioxide on volatile terpenoid emissions and multitrophic communication of transgenic insecticidal oilseed rape (B. napus). | [134] | ||
Mucuna pruriens L. and Arundo donax L. | We found a significant enhancement of isoprene emissions perunit leaf area in M. pruriens under subambient CO2 concentrations relative to ambient controls but not for A. donax. | [135] | ||
M. micrantha | Increasing air CO2 levels may improve the biosynthesis and phytotoxicity of allelochemicals in M. micrantha, one of the most obtrusive weeds in the world, which in turn might improve its potential allelopathic effect on neighboring local plants if discharged in bioactive concentrations. | [138] | ||
5. | Nutrient deficiency | O. sativa | The main nutrient deficiencies are of nitrogen and phosphate. In rice, allelopathic activity may be increased under nutrient starvation conditions. Rice has shown strong allelopathic activity under phosphorus and nitrogen deficiency, which indicates the influence of nutrient starvation. | [69] |
O. sativa | Rice produces more allelochemicals in nitrogen- and phosphate-limited conditions. | [124] | ||
O. sativa | The inducible phenomenon in rice was observed when the P content dropped below the optimum level in hydroponic culture. | [140] | ||
O. sativa | In lower P conditions, the defensive enzyme activities and other physiological and biochemical indices of barnyard grass were restrained. Further analysis revealed that the activity of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and the total phenol content in root and leaf tissues increased remarkably compared with that in non-allelogenic rice. | [141] | ||
Microcystis spp. | In Microcystis, the discharge of VOCs was dramatically increased in a low-nitrogen medium. | [45] | ||
A. thaliana | In A. thaliana, P deficiency induces the expression of more than 1000 traits, of which a large number of genes are related to terpene VOCs and phenylalanine metabolism. | [142] | ||
M. aeruginosa | M. aeruginosa increased the release of VOCs and β-cyclocitral when N availability was insufficient. | [144] | ||
A. tamarense | It has been reported that the production of allelochemicals was stimulated in A. tamarense after exposure to N-limited and P-limited conditions | [145] | ||
6. | heavy metals | O. sativa | These heavy metals increase the generation and emission of momilactone B in rice. The rice allelopathic activity might be enhanced due to heavy metals, with a rise in the emission of momilactone B, which has formidable phytotoxin and allelopathic efficacy. | [147] |
7. | high salinity | Solieria chordalis J. Agardh and Gymnogongrus antarcticus Skottsberg | During high salinity, S. chordalis and G. antarcticus increase the production of allelochemicals. | [148] |
O. sativa | Similarly, when rice cultivars are influenced by high salt, the production of salicylic acid is significantly elevated. Allelochemical production by rice is an effective defense for rice seedlings against barnyard grass. | [149] |
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Shan, Z.; Zhou, S.; Shah, A.; Arafat, Y.; Arif Hussain Rizvi, S.; Shao, H. Plant Allelopathy in Response to Biotic and Abiotic Factors. Agronomy 2023, 13, 2358. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13092358
Shan Z, Zhou S, Shah A, Arafat Y, Arif Hussain Rizvi S, Shao H. Plant Allelopathy in Response to Biotic and Abiotic Factors. Agronomy. 2023; 13(9):2358. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13092358
Chicago/Turabian StyleShan, Zixiang, Shixing Zhou, Asma Shah, Yasir Arafat, Syed Arif Hussain Rizvi, and Hua Shao. 2023. "Plant Allelopathy in Response to Biotic and Abiotic Factors" Agronomy 13, no. 9: 2358. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13092358