Stakeholder Insights: A Socio-Agronomic Study on Varietal Innovation Adoption, Preferences, and Sustainability in the Arracacha Crop (Arracacia xanthorrhiza B.)

Abstract

Arracacha, a root crop indigenous to the Andean region of South America, holds significant agronomic and socio-economic importance in Colombia. The study aims to evaluate the impacts of adopting the ‘Agrosavia La 22’ variety on agricultural sustainability and productivity, encompassing economic, environmental, and social dimensions. Additionally, it analyzes the preferences of farmers and other stakeholders regarding the sustainability of the introduced technological innovations. Conducted over three years (2021–2023), the study offers comprehensive insights into adoption trends and stakeholder perceptions. Utilizing the Ambitec-Agro methodology, the research assesses the environmental, social, and economic impacts of ‘Agrosavia La 22’. Data collection involved field observations and interviews with farmers and key actors in the arracacha supply chain. Results indicate a substantial increase in the cultivated area from 1500 hectares in 2021 to 2650 hectares in 2023, with the proportion of total cultivated area rising from 47.6% to 84.1%. Economically, ‘Agrosavia La 22’ demonstrated significant input cost savings, reducing costs by USD 347 per hectare by 2023 and enhancing producer surplus from USD 30.95 to USD 651.16 per hectare. Yield comparisons show higher median yields for ‘Agrosavia La 22’ (20 t ha⁻¹ in 2023) compared to traditional varieties (12.5 t ha⁻¹). Socially, there was a marked improvement in farmers’ income perceptions, and environmentally, there was a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (324.05 kg CO₂-eq ha⁻¹) due to optimized fertilizer and pesticide applications. Eco-efficiency (EE) analysis shows that ‘Agrosavia La 22’ consistently demonstrated positive EE values, indicating economic viability alongside lower GHG emissions. In 2021, its EE stood at 2.2 USD/kg CO₂-eq, increasing to 27.75 USD/kg CO₂-eq by 2023, reflecting substantial economic gains relative to environmental impact. Conversely, the traditional variety initially exhibited lower EE due to high GHG emissions. Challenges such as soil quality decline and market price volatility were noted. Overall, the findings underscore the economic, social, and environmental benefits of ‘Agrosavia La 22’. Furthermore, the methodology used in this study can be applied to the evaluation of other varietal innovations in developing countries with limited resources for assessing agricultural technology impacts.

1. Introduction

In developing countries, small-scale farmers face a cycle of low productivity and challenges in the agricultural market, such as a lack of timely information, inaccessible technologies, and limited financial services [1]. These barriers hinder the adoption of technological innovations, crucial for enhancing agricultural productivity and sustainability globally. Identifying the factors influencing farmers’ adoption of new plant varieties is essential to break this cycle and promote sustainable development [2].

Arracacha (Arracacia xanthorrhiza Bancroft), a root crop native to the Andean region of South America, holds significant importance in Colombia. Primarily cultivated by small- and medium-scale farmers on plots ranging from 1 to 10 hectares, arracacha is characterized by its diverse varieties: white, yellow, and purple. The vegetative period of arracacha ranges from 8 to 18 months, with commercial yields reaching from 10 to 20 tons of roots per hectare [3].

In Colombia, arracacha is predominantly grown in three production clusters: Cajamarca (Tolima) province contributes 43% of the national production (45,700 t in 2023), Boyacá with 14% (17,235 t), and Norte de Santander with 7% (8990 t) [4] (UPRA, 2023). Under cultivation conditions in Cajamarca (Tolima), the vegetative period varies between 12 and 18 months, with an average yield of 12.5 t ha⁻¹ for the traditional genotype known by farmers as “Amarilla Común”.

It is typically marketed fresh for homemade preparations such as soups, purees, cakes, and sweets. Arracacha is noted for its energy-rich and easily digestible properties, containing rich vitamins (B3 and C); minerals such as magnesium, iron, thiamine, and phosphorus; and high dietary fiber and protein content [5].

The low turnover of genetic materials, due to the limited use of improved varieties with enhanced yield advantages and adaptability to biotic and abiotic stresses, has been associated with large yield gaps in developing countries [6]. Both supply and demand factors influence varietal turnover rates. Small-scale farmers often exhibit risk aversion, limited access to production markets, poor storage facilities and transportation infrastructure, and are exposed to counterfeit seeds and inadequate information regarding the benefits of new varieties [7]. Frequently, farmers prefer to cultivate familiar varieties [8]. The adoption of new varieties is facilitated by the diffusion of dynamic innovations driven by the private sector, although the public sector often complements this need.

This study aims to evaluate the impact on agricultural sustainability and productivity in the Colombian context resulting from the adoption of the ‘Agrosavia La 22’ arracacha variety. It addresses multiple perspectives: economic, environmental, and social. Furthermore, it seeks to analyze the preferences of farmers and other stakeholders, as well as the sustainability of the introduced technological innovations.

Using a qualitative and observational approach, this study will employ methods such as semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and field observations to gather rich and detailed data. These techniques will enable an understanding of farmers’ experiences, perceptions, and practices regarding the adoption of ‘Agrosavia La 22’. The study will explore perceived economic benefits, such as increased yields and reduced costs, and environmental impacts, such as soil quality improvement and reduced agrochemical use. Additionally, it will analyze social aspects, including enhanced quality of life for agricultural communities and social cohesion. The study spans three consecutive years (2021, 2022, 2023), providing comprehensive insights into adoption trends and stakeholder perceptions over time.

The methodology used in this study is Ambitec-Agro [9,10,11], which allows for the evaluation of environmental, social, and economic impacts of agricultural technological innovations. Data were collected through field observations and interviews with farmers and key actors involved in the cultivation and commercialization of arracacha, ensuring a thorough understanding of the long-term effects of adopting ‘Agrosavia La 22’.

This study will significantly contribute to understanding the factors influencing the adoption of improved arracacha varieties in Colombia, offering valuable insights for the formulation of policies and strategies aimed at promoting the adoption of technological innovations in the agricultural sector. Furthermore, it is expected that the results will help improve the sustainability and productivity of farmers, strengthening their economic resilience and thereby contributing to sustainable development. By focusing on the interactions between farmers’ well-being and sustainability, this research aims to provide a comprehensive socio-agronomic perspective on varietal innovation adoption in the arracacha crop.

2. Materials and Methods

The varietal innovation (VI) adoption among Colombian farmers is analyzed by examining the arracacha (Arracacia xanthorrhiza Bancroft) production sector. Our hypothesis revolves around the premise that farmers adopt VI in response to their changing technical demands, closely related to facilitating adaptation to climatic and market vicissitudes. Additionally, public policies and the organization of the supply chain play fundamental roles in shaping farmers’ decision-making paradigms. This study adopts a sustainability-focused approach, summarizing the triple bottom line of social, economic, and environmental facets (Figure 1).

We delineate a conceptual framework for this study, as shown in Figure 2, which comprehensively considers the complexities surrounding the adoption of modern varieties, specifically arracacha and their potential long- and short-term impacts for farmers and agriculture. This framework emphasizes the fundamental interactions between farmers’ well-being and the prominent dimensions underpinning the adoption of varietal innovation, encompassing economic, social, and environmental domains. Through clear interconnections, Figure 2 shows how the assimilation of these modern varieties can directly shape farmers’ quality of life while simultaneously evaluating their contributions to economic sustainability, social advancement, and environmental conservation. Decision-making regarding adopting agricultural technologies is often guided by anticipated welfare motives, primarily involving increased net household income, enhanced net labor remuneration, and/or reduced risk exposure [12]. The importance of these factors may differ among marginal, small, and medium-scale farmers: the former exhibit greater sensitivity to risk mitigation, while the latter gravitate towards achieving higher net incomes.

2.1. Description of Study Setting

Our study primarily focuses on small arracacha producers in Cajamarca (Tolima, Colombia), for whom arracacha significantly contributes to food security (Figure 3). Arracacha, also known as Peruvian carrot, is a root vegetable from the Apiaceae family, alongside celery and carrot, originating from the Andean region of South America. The edible portion of the plant comprises six or more tuberous roots, which can be elongated, cylindrical, or conical, measuring about 4 cm thick and up to 20 cm long, covered with thin, lustrous skin. Commercial arracacha production is concentrated in South America, particularly Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador, and, to a lesser extent, in Peru and Bolivia. The high market prices and the robustness of the crop, coupled with its reputation as a nutritious product, have spurred cultivation in Colombia, where average productivity stands at approximately 12 t ha⁻¹. However, adopting new genetic material alongside improved agricultural techniques has already led to yields exceeding 20 t ha⁻¹ [13].

The study was conducted in Cajamarca (Tolima, Colombia) (Figure 3), renowned for its mountainous terrain and high-altitude landscapes, where slopes exceed 50%. The prevailing environmental conditions include an annual precipitation of 1000 a 2500 mm, an average annual temperature of 12 to 18 °C, and a relative humidity of 82 to 87.5%. Cajamarca, a municipality with a population of 19,408 (47.5% rural area and 52.5% urban area), consists of two main populated centers: the town center of Cajamarca and the locality of Anaime. The area is renowned for its agricultural suitability, earning it the moniker of Colombia’s ‘agricultural larder’. Planting arracacha in Cajamarca is a longstanding tradition representing this region’s most significant crop production [14].

Arracacha crop has undergone extensive study and research, evolving from traditional practices to integration into broader scientific and technological frameworks. Over time, arracacha cultivation has shifted from subsistence to a vital driver of the local and national economy [15]. Scientific research of arracacha cultivation in Colombia began in the 1990s, with collaborative efforts involving institutions like the Colombian Corporation of Agricultural Research (AGROSAVIA). Initial endeavors focused on characterizing regional genetic resources and refining pest and disease management techniques.

In response to market needs, particularly from Colombia’s primary wholesale market, “Corabastos”, initiatives intensified to develop highly productive, consumer-preferred yellow arracacha varieties. The Nataima Research Center of AGROSAVIA, known for its pioneering research, played a pivotal role. Collaborating closely with local farmers, it conducted extensive studies and experiments to bolster the competitiveness and sustainability of arracacha production systems in the region (Figure 4). This culminated in the successful development of Agrosavia La 22, a specific yellow arracacha variety. The presence of cultivars like Agrosavia La 22 and traditional variety in Tolima department underscores the crop’s regional significance and genetic diversity [13].

The project “Generation and use of genetic materials, integrated crop management, post-harvest, and processing of arracacha in the Andean Region of Colombia,” carried out between 2013 and 2019, marked a significant milestone in arracacha cultivation research. This project led to the development of the Agrosavia La 22 variety, with improved characteristics in yield, disease tolerance, and organoleptic quality (

Table 1. Comparison of attributes between arracacha varieties: Agrosavia La 22 (A) and traditional (B).

Attributes	Agrosavia La 22 (A)	Traditional (B)
Commercial yield (t ha−1)	High 20	Low 10
Plant size	5.31 kg	4.95 kg
Harvest maturity	Early (10 months)	Medium (12 months)
Color: Percentage of purple turnips per plant	0%	4.81%

Note: Source [14,16]. The variety AGROSAVIA La 22, the first arracacha variety registered in Colombia, was officially recognized through ICA Resolution 15201 of 2019, which included it in the national registry of cultivars.

). Currently, Agrosavia continues to evaluate and monitor the performance of the Agrosavia La 22 variety in close collaboration with local farmers. This ongoing feedback loop between scientific research and agricultural practice helps identify improvement opportunities and ensures the long-term sustainability of arracacha in Colombia.

2.2. Economic Sustanaibility

The first methodological step aimed to assess the comparative profitability of varietal innovation compared to the traditional variety, which was used as a counterfactual. Through interviews with farmers, we established production costs and crop revenues for a 1-year production cycle and 1 hectare of land in each measurement year (2021/2022/2023). This study employs an economic surplus approach to calculate the flow of benefits resulting from the adoption of the arracacha variety, assuming that the demand curve is perfectly elastic (i.e., flat) and welfare benefits due to a supply shift induced by technology or varietal research accrue to producers (i.e., increasing producer surplus but not affecting consumer surplus). Changes in total economic surplus (which in this case equates to changes in producer surplus) are depicted in Equations (1) and (2) [17].

$$∆CS=0$$

(1)

$$∆PS=∆TS=P_w{Q}_{0}K\left(1+0.5K\epsilon \right)$$

(2)

where ∆CS is the change in consumer surplus, ∆PS is the change in producer surplus, ∆TS is the change in total surplus, $P_w$ is the constant price of arracacha, $Q_0$ is the level of production prior to the intervention, K is the parameter of change representing the vertical shift in supply (expressed as a proportional decrease in cost per ton due to the intervention), and ε is the elasticity of arracacha supply in the study area.

The additional unitary benefit per unit of yield obtained with the new variety considers both the change in yield and price changes (Equation (3)) [18]. The economic logic behind this equation is to evaluate the additional benefit per unit of yield, considering both the change in yield and price due to the improved quality of the new variety. In this context, the term ΔP reflects the price improvement attributable to the quality of the new variety compared to the traditional one. If the new variety has superior quality and therefore commands a higher price, this term will reflect the increase in income due to the new product quality.

$$UB=\left(∆Y\ast P^{\prime }\right)-∆P$$

(3)

where $UB$ is the additional unitary benefit, ΔY is the change in crop yield per hectare, P′ is the market price paid to the farmer for the harvest obtained with the varietal innovation, and ∆P is the change in price paid to the farmer per ton due to the new quality of the variety, calculated as $∆P=P_0-P^{\prime }$. $P_0$ is the initial production price with the quality of the traditional variety.

To analyze the weekly prices of Agrosavia La 22 and traditional variety, data were collected from local markets within Cajamarca. Prices for both varieties were recorded on a weekly basis over the course of two years. Upon collection, the data underwent thorough organization, structured into a dataset where each entry represented a weekly observation. Distinct columns were delineated to specify the variety and its corresponding price. Subsequently, prices were adjusted to a base year to obtain real prices for meaningful comparisons between the varieties. Subsequently, time series analyses were conducted, and graphs were generated to examine price trends over time between the two varieties. These analyses allowed for the identification of any patterns or general directions in price fluctuations of Agrosavia La 22 and traditional variety, providing a deeper understanding of price dynamics between the two varieties during the study period.

All monetary values were converted to 2023 pesos to standardize their comparison and mitigate the impact of inflation. The Colombian currency (COP) was converted to US dollars (USD) using the Representative Market Exchange Rate (TRM), which represents the value of USD 1 as COP 3800. TRM data from 1 January 2014 to 30 April 2023, sourced from the Bank of the Republic of Colombia, was consulted to establish historical exchange rates. These daily values were then averaged annually for the conversion from COP to USD.

2.3. Social and Environmental Sustainability

This section delves into the initial understanding of the technology analyzed on farms, the reasons behind their initial decision to adopt it, and the motives for its continued use. Details were compiled regarding the technology’s features that either facilitate or hinder its use, along with the environmental factors influencing its adoption and performance. Additionally, potential enhancements were explored to optimize technology usage and maximize its benefits.

The Ambitec-Agro methodology developed by Embrapa was employed to guide the adoption of agricultural technological innovations focused on producers [19,20]. Ambitec-Agro comprises a set of electronic spreadsheets (MS-EXCEL) modules containing social, environmental, and economic indicators. These spreadsheets allow for considering environmental, economic, and social aspects contributing to technological innovation. The tool consists of weighting matrices comprising 138 indicators integrated into 28 criteria distributed across seven aspects related to social and environmental impacts: technological efficiency, environmental quality, consumer respect, labor and employment, income, health, and management. Each impact index was calculated and graphically expressed.

The Ambitec-Agro indicator system methodology comprises three steps. The first step involves surveying and characterizing the technology applied to farmers in the evaluated production units. The second step entails administering a questionnaire to a representative sample of selected farmers. The third step includes inputting data into weighting matrices and composing partial and aggregate indices to assess the selected technology’s environmental impact [21].

The method evaluates the increase, decrease, or absence of change in the considered indicators due to the technology’s adoption in production establishments (indicator change coefficient). Furthermore, it assesses the occurrence scale of the indicator, i.e., the spatial extent of changes in the indicators resulting from the analyzed technology [20]. Although it is a qualitative method, the magnitude and spatial extent of changes are quantified on a numerical scale, allowing for obtaining an average impact index of the technology and each of the 27 analyzed criteria. These indices are expressed on a scale from +15 to −15, representing the highest possible positive impact of technology to the highest possible negative impact, which results from multiplying the indicator change coefficients by their occurrence scale and corresponding weighting factor, yielding the impact coefficient of each indicator. The sum of these coefficients provides the impact coefficient associated with the technology’s use [22].

On the other hand, we calculated the eco-efficiency (EE) of arracacha production in Cajamarca (Tolima). EE is defined as the relationship between the economic performance of an activity and the environmental degradation or impact it generates. Sustainable agriculture aims to increase its EE by reducing environmental impacts such as energy use and GHG emissions from agriculture while simultaneously increasing economic production [23]. The direct GHG emissions were calculated based on the quantity of herbicides, fertilizers, and pesticides using application conversion coefficients [24] following IPCC guidelines [25,26]. The proportion of essential nutrients (such as N, P, K) in the fertilizers used was calculated using their chemical composition, as shown in

Table 2. Inventory of resource inputs for arracacha production in Cajamarca (Tolima).

Variety	Fertilizer Production and Transportation (kg ha−1)			Plaguicides	Herbicides
	N	P	K	(kg ha−1)	(kg ha−1)
Agrosavia La 22	10.9	28.3	16.5	4.58	10.01
Traditional	21	54.5	34.5	6.05	13.36

Note: Average density of pesticides and herbicides of 1.2 kg L⁻¹ is used.

, for each variety evaluated. To calculate the associated GHG emissions [24], this study only considered direct emissions associated with the application rate of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides (

Table 3. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions coefficients (kg CO₂ ha⁻¹).

Items	GHG Emission Coefficients	Unit
N fertilizer production and transportation	8.3	(kg CO2 ha−1)
P fertilizer production and transportation	0.79	(kg CO2 ha−1)
K fertilizer production and transportation	0.55	(kg CO2 ha−1)
Manure production and transportation	11.3	(kg CO2 ha−1)
Herbicides production and transportation	10.15	(kg CO2 ha−1)
Insecticides production and transportation	16.61	(kg CO2 ha−1)

Note: Source Ramírez-Contreras et al. [24].

). The EE was calculated as shown in Equation (4) [23].

$$EE\left(\mathrm{USD}{\mathrm{kg}{\mathrm{CO}}_{2\mathrm{eq}}}^{-1}\right)={\displaystyle \frac{NetReturn\left(\mathrm{U}\mathrm{S}\mathrm{D}{\mathrm{h}\mathrm{a}}^{-1}\right)}{GHGemission\left(\mathrm{k}\mathrm{g}{\mathrm{C}\mathrm{O}}_{2\mathrm{e}\mathrm{q}}{\mathrm{h}\mathrm{a}}^{-1}\right)}}$$

(4)

2.4. Data Collection

Data collection was conducted through three rounds of semi-structured interviews as part of the Social Balance program led by the Colombian Corporation for Agricultural Research (AGROSAVIA). We employed a non-probabilistic convenience sampling technique, selected based on participant accessibility and availability [11,27,28]. While this method is practical for exploratory research and allows for in-depth data collection, it inherently limits the generalizability of the findings to the broader population. However, we mitigated this limitation by applying specific selection criteria to ensure that the sampled farmers reflected key characteristics of those who have adopted the Agrosavia La 22 variety.

To identify farmers who had adopted the new arracacha variety, Agrosavia La 22, we established several rigorous criteria. Adoption was confirmed if at least one plot on the farmer’s land was sown and harvested with the new variety during the study year. We further refined the selection by focusing on plots with slopes exceeding 30 degrees, as these conditions are typical of the region’s agricultural landscape. Additionally, we considered crop rotation practices, selecting plots that had been used for crops other than arracacha (Apiaceae family) in the two preceding years. Finally, we excluded farms located above 2700 m above sea level to avoid potential conflicts with páramo conservation efforts.

By applying these criteria, we aimed to capture a sample that, while non-random, was nevertheless representative of the core conditions under which the Agrosavia La 22 variety is adopted. The study included 19 arracacha farmers (9 in 2021, 5 in 2022, and 5 in 2023) and 12 key informants (5 in 2021, 4 in 2022, and 3 in 2023), who together provided a comprehensive view of the adoption process and its impacts. The key informants included representatives from municipal government, regional agricultural extension services, marketers, and researchers, ensuring a broad perspective.

The Ambitec-Agro tool was individually applied to the farmers to assess the social and environmental challenges they face in the production and marketing of the Agrosavia La 22 arracacha variety. This qualitative tool, developed by Embrapa, is widely recognized for its ability to capture nuanced insights from adopters of agricultural innovations, despite the non-probabilistic nature of the sample.

2.5. Data Analysis

The data collected were analyzed using a mixed approach, combining quantitative and qualitative techniques. Transcripts of in-depth interviews and field notes were coded and grouped into different themes to identify farmers’ motivations for adopting the varietal innovation and its management in their context. The following tools were used for data analysis:

Content analysis: Content analysis of interview transcripts was conducted to identify recurring themes and farmers’ perceptions of the new arracacha variety.

Ambitec-Agro: The Ambitec-Agro tool was used to analyze the data from an investigative and exploratory perspective. This tool allowed for understanding farmers’ perceptions of sustainability and other resources in the dynamic relationship between farmers and their environment. Socio-environmental performance indicators were used to assess the impact of adopting the new arracacha variety. These indicators were based on the methodology of Porto et al. [22].

3. Results

The Agrosavia La 22 arracacha variety has been promoted for its superior yield and resistance characteristics, leading to its increasing adoption by farmers in the study area. In 2021, 1500 hectares were cultivated with Agrosavia La 22, involving 401 producers. This accounted for 47.6% of the total potential area of 3150 hectares allocated for arracacha cultivation in the region. This area in the first year indicates strong initial acceptance, likely motivated by the agronomic and economic advantages of the varietal innovation. In 2022, the area cultivated with Agrosavia La 22 increased to 2000 hectares, representing a 33.3% increase from the previous year.

Moreover, the number of producers rose to 533, indicating a wider acceptance among Cajamarca’s small-scale farmers. The proportion of the total area dedicated to this variety surged to 63.5%, showcasing a significant and steady growth in its adoption. By 2023, the cultivated area expanded to 2650 hectares, a 32.5% increase compared to 2022. The number of producers for this year is estimated in 708 and the proportion of the total area dedicated to Agrosavia La 22 rose to 84.1%, suggesting that the majority of the potential area is being utilized for this variety, which is evidence of its dominant position in the study area (

Table 4. Adoption of Agrosavia La 22 arracacha variety in Cajamarca, Tolima (2021–2023).

Year	Cultivated Area (ha)	Increase in Cultivated Area (%)	Number of Producers	Proportion of Total Area (%)
2021	1500	N/A	401	47.6
2022	2000	33.3	533	63.5
2023	2650	32.5	708	84.1

).

Adopting the Agrosavia La 22 variety has shown steady and significant growth during the study period. The annual rate of adoption increase has been robust, with increments of 33.3% and 32.5% in 2022 and 2023, respectively. The proportion of the total area cultivated with this variety increased from 47.6% in 2021 to 84.1% in 2023, indicating widespread acceptance and a growing preference among farmers. This adoption pattern suggests that the high adoption rate may be associated with the agronomic benefits of the new variety, such as higher yield and resistance to pests and diseases. Additionally, the increase in the number of producers indicates effective dissemination of agricultural technology among the local community.

This initial acceptance was reflected in the stabilization of the yield during this period, as seen in Figure 5, where the yield maintained around 15 t ha⁻¹. The superior agronomic characteristics of the variety, including its higher yield potential and resistance to pests, likely contributed to this stabilization.

The subsequent years showed even greater expansion, with the area cultivated with Agrosavia La 22 increasing to 2000 hectares in 2022 and further to 2650 hectares in 2023. This expansion corresponds with the continued rise in yield, which peaked at 19 t ha⁻¹ by 2023 (Figure 5). The correlation between the increased adoption of Agrosavia La 22 and the rising yield suggests that the varietal innovation had a significant impact on enhancing productivity in the region.

3.1. Economic Sustanaibility

The comparative analysis spanning 2021 to 2023 between labor and input costs for Agrosavia La 22 and the traditional arracacha variety yields clear findings (

Table 5. Comparative cost analysis of inputs and labor for Agrosavia la 22 and the traditional arracacha variety (USD ha⁻¹).

Cost	Variety	2021	2022	2023
Labor	Agrosavia La 22	2723	2580	2737
	Traditional	2529	2510	2720
Inputs (Chemical/fertilizer/seeds)	Agrosavia La 22	312	389	463
	Traditional	558	700	827
Cost Savings	Agrosavia La 22 vs. Traditional	−51 (1.7%)	−241 (7.5%)	−347 (9.8%)

). While Agrosavia La 22 initially incurred slightly higher labor costs in 2021, it demonstrated a consistent downward trend over the study period, remaining competitive with the traditional variety. In contrast, Agrosavia La 22 consistently outperformed in input costs, including chemicals, fertilizers, and seeds, showcasing significant savings potential. Notably, Agrosavia La 22 realized cost reductions of USD 51 per hectare (1.7%) in 2021, escalating to USD 347 per hectare (9.8%) by 2023.

The comparison of production costs and producer surplus between Agrosavia La 22 and traditional arracacha varieties from 2021 to 2023 shows clear economic benefits for Agrosavia La 22 (

Table 6. Comparison of production costs and producer surplus between Agrosavia la 22 and conventional varieties of arracacha (USD ha⁻¹) from 2021 to 2023.

Year	Cost Agrosavia La 22 Variety (USD ha−1)	Cost traditional Variety (USD ha−1)	Producer Surplus ΔPS (USD ha−1)	Additionalunit Benefit UB (USD ha−1)
2021	4033	3978	30.95	1370
2022	4223	3965	411.47	4774
2023	4647	4276	651.16	5034

). The producer surplus, representing the additional economic benefit obtained by producers adopting the new variety, increased significantly during the study period, rising from USD 30.95 in 2021 to USD 651.16 in 2023. Additionally, the additional unit benefits, measuring economic gain per hectare, increased markedly, highlighting the profitability of Agrosavia La 22.

The comparative analysis of productivity (t ha⁻¹) distributions, based on stakeholders’ reported yields, reveals differences between the Agrosavia La 22 arracacha variety and the traditional variety (Figure 6). Yield data provided by key stakeholders was used to create a boxplot comparison. Agrosavia La 22 consistently outperforms the traditional variety across all three years, as evidenced by higher median yields. In 2021, Agrosavia La 22 achieved a median yield of approximately 22 t ha⁻¹, significantly surpassing the traditional variety, which reported a median yield of approximately 12 t ha⁻¹. This trend persists in 2022, with Agrosavia La 22 recording a median yield of around 24 t ha⁻¹ compared to the traditional variety’s median yield of approximately 13.75 t ha⁻¹. However, there is a slight decline in the median yield of Agrosavia La 22 in 2023, dropping to approximately 20 t ha⁻¹, while the traditional variety maintains a relatively stable yield of around 12.5 t ha⁻¹.

Figure 7 shows the weekly time series of prices for two varieties of arracacha, Agrosavia La 22 and traditional arracacha, in USD per kg, spanning from January 2022 to February 2024. These data represent the evolution of weekly prices paid to agriculturists for the traditional variety and the innovative variety arracacha Agrosavia La 22. Both series exhibit a high correlation, indicating that market factors similarly impact both varieties. The insights from these price trends are crucial, as they can guide strategic decisions in the production and marketing of arracacha. During the initial months, both types of arracacha experienced a downward price trend, reaching their lowest points in February 2022, with Agrosavia La 22 at USD 0.184 and traditional variety at USD 0.207. This was followed by a sustained recovery, peaking around July 2022, when prices for both varieties stabilized around USD 0.688. From July 2022 to January 2023, prices remained relatively stable with slight fluctuations, reaching their highest in October 2022 at approximately USD 1.033 for both varieties.

3.2. Social and Environmental Sustainability

The characterization of the 19 arracacha farmers interviewed from 2021 to 2023 highlights several key aspects of their demographics, farm sizes, and agricultural practices (

Table 7. Characteristics of arracacha farmers interviewed in the study area.

Year	Farmer	Age (Years)	Farm Size (ha)	Arracacha Area Per Farm (%)	Yield Agrosavia La 22 (t ha−1)	Yield Traditional (t ha−1)	Other Crops
2021	P1	52	5	40.0	18	12.5	Avocado, Pea, Coffee, Bean
	P2	56	23	73.9	24	16	Tomato, Bean
	P3	46	7	85.7	22	9	Avocado, Tomato
	P4	46	13	30.8	22.5	12.5	Avocado, Tomato, Pea
	P5	41	4	50.0	30	13	Coffee, Chickens
	P6	68	8	43.8	35	15	Passion Fruit, Bean
	P7	78	3	100.0	27	12.5	Cabbage, Tomato, Coriander, Bean
	P8	50	9	11.1	27	12.5	Tomato, Bean
	P9	40	8	43.8	35	15	Avocado, Feijoa, Coffee, Cherimoya, Apple
Average		53	8.9	53.2	26.72	13.1
2022	P1	80	11	9.1	20	10	Cabbage, Tomato, Coriander, Bean
	P2	62	1	50.0	21	13	Chickens
	P3	71	20	10.0	16	8	Coffee
	P4	51	3	16.7	15	12	Coffee, Fruit Trees, Passion Fruit
	P5	58	5	40.0	18	10	Fruit Trees, Aromatics
Average		64.4	8	25.2	18	10.6
2023	P1	27	11	100.0	17	12	Tomato, Avocado, Bean
	P2	62	5	100.0	12	10	Bean, Bell Pepper
	P3	52	16	21.9	24.5	12	Avocado, Tomato
	P4	60	27	20.4	17.5	11	Bean, Cabbage, Coriander
	P5	48	16	50.0	25	10	Bean, Tomato, Avocado
Average		49.8	15	62.7	19.2	11

). In 2021, the average age of farmers was 53 years, with an average farm size of 8.9 hectares. On average, 53.2% of their farm area was dedicated to arracacha, yielding 26.72 t ha⁻¹ for the Agrosavia La 22 variety and 13.1 t ha⁻¹ for traditional varieties. Farmers in this group also cultivated other crops such as avocado, tomato, coffee, and beans. In 2022, the average age increased to 64.4 years, with a reduced average farm size of 8 hectares. The proportion of farm area dedicated to arracacha decreased to 25.2%, yielding 18 t ha⁻¹ for Agrosavia La 22 and 10.6 t ha⁻¹ for traditional varieties. Additional crops included cabbage, fruit trees, and aromatics. By 2023, the average age of farmers was 49.8 years, and the average farm size was 15 hectares. The percentage of farm area allocated to arracacha rose significantly to 62.7%, with yields of 19.2 t ha⁻¹ for Agrosavia La 22 and 11 t ha⁻¹ for traditional varieties. Farmers also grew tomatoes, beans, and avocados.

The performance index of social indicators for adopting the Agrosavia La 22 arracacha variety in Cajamarca, Tolima, as depicted in Figure 7, reveals a dynamic impact from 2021 to 2023. The average coefficient for the social impact index was 1.31 (on a scale of −15 to +15). Figure 7 illustrates annual performance indices of social indicators among farmers regarding the adoption of the improved arracacha variety, Agrosavia La 22, compared to the traditional local variety across various criteria from 2021 to 2023 (see Figure S1 for the social impact index for each year).

Initially, perceptions of product quality and food security exhibit varied trends. Product quality scores were notably high in 2021 and 2022 (5.72 and 5.90 respectively) but experienced a significant decrease in 2023 to 2.50, indicating a potential shift in farmers’ perceptions of the improved variety’s quality over time. Conversely, food security consistently maintained high scores throughout the years (4.11, 3.25, and 4.30), reflecting steadfast positive views regarding the variety’s impact on food availability and accessibility.

Moreover, Figure 8 illustrates a marked evolution in farmers’ perceptions of the income generated by the improved arracacha variety, Agrosavia La 22, over the years. Initially in 2021, perceptions of its positive income impact were moderate, scoring 0.89. However, by 2022 and 2023, perceptions notably increased to 5.00 and 5.40, respectively. This indicates that farmers perceived Agrosavia La 22 as beginning to yield significantly higher incomes compared to the traditional local variety in these latter two years. This shift suggests a growing adaptation and acceptance of the improved variety as a profitable and beneficial option for enhancing economic conditions in arracacha farming. Conversely, perceptions related to social capital, capacity, and occupational health and safety remained relatively stable or showed slight decreases over the three-year period, highlighting areas where perceptions of the variety’s impact may be less pronounced or consistent.

Figure 9 shows the environmental impact of adopting the Agrosavia La 22 variety from 2021 to 2023. The average coefficient for the environmental impact index was 1.48 (on a scale of −15 to +15). Among the environmental criteria assessed, the Agrosavia La 22 arracacha variety was positively evaluated by interviewed farmers for direct land use and the use of agricultural inputs compared to the traditional local variety. Direct land use in 2021 had a score of 3.19. This score underscores farmers’ recognition of enhanced efficiency in land management practices tailored specifically for arracacha cultivation. The positive perception indicates that adopting Agrosavia La 22 has facilitated more optimal land utilization strategies, potentially enhancing productivity per unit of land area dedicated to arracacha farming. Similarly, the use of agricultural inputs was highly esteemed, achieving a notable score of 6.75 in the same year. This rating reflects farmers’ favorable impressions towards reduced dependency on agricultural inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides, thereby promoting environmentally sustainable practices within arracacha production systems (see Figure S2 for the environmental impact index for each year).

Conversely, soil quality registered a concerning negative perception in 2023, declining sharply with a score of −1.85 compared to previous assessments. This downturn signifies a notable shift towards less favorable viewpoints among farmers regarding the impact of the Agrosavia La 22 variety on soil health and fertility. The decrease in soil quality perception suggests heightened apprehensions regarding potential soil degradation or nutrient depletion associated with prolonged cultivation of this improved variety.

On the other hand,

Table 8. Greenhouse gas (ghg) emissions from fertilizer and pesticide applications for arracacha varieties Agrosavia La 22 and traditional (kg CO₂ ha⁻¹).

Variety of Arracacha	Fertilizer Production and Transportation			Fertilizer Application		Pesticides	Herbicides	Total
	N	P	K	N2O Emission	NH3 Volatilization
Agrosavia La 22	90.47	22.36	9.08	22.62	1.81	76.14	101.58	324.05
Traditional	174.3	43.06	18.98	43.58	3.49	100.46	135.56	519.41

presents greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with fertilizer and pesticide applications in the cultivation of Agrosavia La 22 and the traditional variety of arracacha. Agrosavia La 22 exhibited lower total GHG emissions per hectare, amounting to 324.05 kg CO₂-eq, primarily driven by emissions from fertilizer production and transportation (90.47 kg CO₂-eq), fertilizer application (101.58 kg CO₂-eq), and pesticide use (76.14 kg CO₂-eq). In contrast, the traditional variety showed higher emissions of 519.41 kg CO₂-eq per hectare, mainly due to greater emissions in fertilizer production and transportation (174.3 kg CO₂-eq), fertilizer application (135.56 kg CO₂-eq), and pesticide application (100.46 kg CO₂-eq). These findings underscore the potential environmental benefits of adopting Agrosavia La 22, which employs optimized agricultural practices leading to reduced GHG emissions compared to traditional methods.

Table 9. Eco-efficiency (EE) of arracacha production in Cajamarca (Tolima).

Year	Variety	Net Return (USD/ha)	GHG Emissions (kgCO2-eq/ha)	EE (USD/kgCO2-eq)
2021	Agrosavia La 22	713.38	324.05	2.2
2021	Traditional	−1760.17	519.41	−3.39
2022	Agrosavia La 22	7612.50	324.05	23.49
2022	Traditional	2341.72	519.41	4.51
2023	Agrosavia La 22	8992.75	324.05	27.75
2023	Traditional	3589.08	519.41	6.91

provides the eco-efficiency (EE) analysis of arracacha production in Cajamarca (Tolima) over multiple years. EE, calculated as the ratio of net returns to GHG emissions per kilogram of CO₂-equivalent, highlights significant economic and environmental implications. Agrosavia La 22 consistently demonstrated positive EE values, indicating economic viability alongside lower GHG emissions. In 2021, its EE stood at 2.2 USD/kg CO₂-eq, increasing to 27.75 USD/kg CO₂-eq by 2023, reflecting substantial economic gains relative to environmental impact. Conversely, the traditional variety initially exhibited negative EE values in 2021 (−3.39 USD/kg CO₂-eq), signifying economic losses exacerbated by high GHG emissions. By 2023, however, its EE improved to 6.91 USD/kg CO₂-eq, suggesting economic recovery and ongoing efforts to mitigate environmental impact through improved practices.

3.3. Positive and Negatives Aspects of Arracacha Variety Agrosavia La 22 Adoption Process—Perceptions from Cajamarca (Tolima) Stakeholders

Table 10. Summary of stakeholder perceptions on the adoption of arracacha variety “Agrosavia La 22” in Cajamarca (Tolima)—positive and negative aspects (2021–2023).

Stakeholder	Positive Aspects	Negative Aspects
Local Government	- Higher productivity in low-fertility soils.	- Lower selling price than the common variety.
	- Resistance to pests and diseases.	- Displacement of the traditional variety.
	- Lower production costs.	- High input costs and market access issues.
	- Adaptation to low-quality soils.	- Need for improved post-harvest management.
	- Continuous training for producers.	- Susceptibility to continuous rains, causing rotting.
	- Reduction in fertilizer use.	- New requirements for harvesting at exact times to avoid quality loss.
	- Adaptability to less favorable soils.
	- Stimulus from increased prices.
Farmers	- Productive cycle of 10–11 months.	- Low selling price.
	- Lower use of inputs and agrochemicals.	- Post-harvest damage due to splitting and high moisture content.
	- Market interest in the variety.	- Dependency on intermediaries, affecting selling prices.
	- High yield (18.75 to 22.5 t ha−1).	- Insufficient infrastructure and market access challenges.
	- Access to technologies and guidance.	- Price fluctuations in the market.
	- Reduced labor and production costs.	- Seed availability issues.
	- Adaptability to different soil and climate conditions.	- Quality loss due to browning of the tuberous root’s skin with late harvesting.
	- Resistance to pests and diseases.
Agricultural Extension Services	- Early harvest (10–12 months).	- High water content in the turnip, making it more perishable.
	- More attractive to buyers (100% yellow).	- Susceptibility to diseases and pests.
	- Reduced agrochemical use (30% less).	- Low seed availability in the area.
	- Improved soil conditions.	- Challenges in nutrient management.
	- Suitability for planting in lower altitudes.	- Shorter post-harvest period; cannot be left in the field after harvest.
	- Lower production costs.	- Susceptible to atrazine during the first 4 months.
Farmers Association	- Higher productivity.	- Susceptibility to root splitting, affecting quality and price.
	- Lower agrochemical use.	- Rising input costs.
	- Resistance to summer.	- Impact from national strikes and transport issues.
	- Lower production costs.	- Management challenges due to the new variety.
	- Market potential in restaurants.	- Delicate post-harvest handling required due to high water content.
	- Technical support from institutions like AGROSAVIA.	- Lack of high-quality seed availability in the region.
	- Competitive in the national market.
	- Accepted in the “Corabastos market” without price fluctuations.

provides a comprehensive overview of the positive and negatives aspects perceived by local government, farmers, agricultural extension services, and farmers’ associations. The Agrosavia La 22 variety has proven to offer benefits such as high productivity in low-fertility soils, resistance to pests and diseases, and reduced production costs due to lower use of agrochemicals. These positive aspects signify a significant improvement in the efficiency and sustainability of the crop, facilitated by continuous training and access to technologies. The process of social learning, where farmers learn and adopt innovations through interaction with institutions and among themselves, has been instrumental in the acceptance and adaptation of the Agrosavia La 22 variety in various agroecological conditions of the region.

However, the adoption of the Agrosavia La 22 variety has not been without its challenges. Stakeholders have reported issues related to post-harvest management, susceptibility to damage during handling and transportation, and constant market price fluctuations. These difficulties underscore the need for more specialized technical support and better infrastructure for handling and marketing arracacha. Farmers have also faced challenges in obtaining seeds and managing product quality, which has impacted market competitiveness. (For those interested in a more detailed breakdown of the positive and negative aspects of the adoption process across the years 2021, 2022, and 2023, please refer to the Supplementary Material, where this information is presented in Tables S1 and S2.)

4. Discussion

The cost analysis of labor and inputs between Agrosavia La 22 and the traditional arracacha variety reveals substantial economic advantages for Agrosavia La 22. These findings are consistent with previous studies on the adoption of improved crop varieties. For instance, Fuglie and Echeverria [29] noted that improved crop varieties generally result in greater input efficiency and long-term cost reductions. Similarly, Elsayed et al. [30] reported significant economic benefits from improved wheat varieties, particularly through reduced input costs and increased fertilizer use efficiency. Our results corroborate these trends, suggesting that adopting Agrosavia La 22 can significantly enhance the economic and environmental sustainability of arracacha production in the region. The analysis of producer surplus and additional unit benefits further supports the adoption of Agrosavia La 22.

Farmers who adopted the Agrosavia La 22 variety typically applied fertilizers at rates of 10.9 kg ha⁻¹ of nitrogen (N), 28.3 kg ha⁻¹ of phosphorus (P), and 16.5 kg ha⁻¹ of potassium (K). This represents a significant reduction compared to the traditional variety, which required 21 kg ha⁻¹ of N, 54.5 kg ha⁻¹ of P, and 34.5 kg ha⁻¹ of K. This decrease indicates that Agrosavia La 22 is more nutrient-efficient, leading to lower production costs and reduced environmental impact. Garnica et al. [14] documented positive responses to low fertilizer doses for Agrosavia La 22 during various growth phases, highlighting the effectiveness of specific fertilization strategies.

The adoption of Agrosavia La 22 has also led to a decrease in the use of pesticides and herbicides. Farmers who adopted this variety applied an average of 4.58 kg ha⁻¹ of pesticides and 10.01 kg ha⁻¹ of herbicides, compared to 6.05 kg ha⁻¹ and 13.36 kg ha⁻¹, respectively, for the traditional variety. This reduction reflects a lower reliance on agrochemicals, promoting more sustainable agricultural practices. The overall decrease in fertilizer and pesticide/herbicide use underscores the potential environmental benefits and resource efficiency associated with Agrosavia La 22, making it a more sustainable option for arracacha production in the region.

Cost savings are primarily achieved through reduced spending on fertilization and weed control. The combinations and quantities of herbicides used are crucial for achieving these savings. Key findings indicate that farmers’ decisions are driven by both economic and technical considerations, with a preference for varieties offering high yield, disease resistance, drought tolerance, high market value, early maturity, aroma, and local adaptation [31]. Agricultural intensification, through the use of improved varieties, is associated with higher yields per hectare.

By 2023, an estimated 2650 hectares of the Agrosavia La 22 arracacha variety had been adopted, representing 84.1% of the total planted area. These results align with Navarro-Niño and Jaramillo-Barrios [32], who found that 90.38% of farmers adopt improved varieties validated in the region, with an average yield of 20.22 t ha⁻¹. Farmers benefit directly from the positive results observed by other farmers in the region, reducing aversion to new innovations and increasing adoption as those who adopt feel more secure.

However, key stakeholders noted a loss of postharvest quality in Agrosavia La 22 due to tuber root fissuring, which could limit its continued adoption. This issue is similar to studies where farmers prefer varieties with longer storage longevity and disease resistance, such as those in cassava [29]. Additionally, the low availability of quality seed in Cajamarca may negatively affect adoption and crop management. Other studies highlight the importance of factors affecting the adoption of root and tuber varieties, such as the availability of quality seeds and ongoing training.

The adoption of Agrosavia La 22 was evaluated for its socio-environmental impact over three years (2021, 2022, and 2023) using the Ambitec-Agro tool. This study shows similarities with the research of Navarro-Niño and Jaramillo-Barrios [32] in Cajamarca, Tolima, where a sample of producers was characterized by attributes such as age (53.05 years in 2022 and 55.1 years in 2023), farm area (11.23 ha in 2022 and 10.2 ha in 2023), common yellow arracacha production (11.46 t ha⁻¹ in 2022 and 11.8 t ha⁻¹ in 2023), and Agrosavia La 22 production (20.22 t ha⁻¹ in 2022 and 22.4 t ha⁻¹ in 2023).

The direct land use indicator values, averaging 3.19, indicate increased land productivity due to the high yields of the new variety. Environmental impact results showed a reduction in fertilizer and agrochemical use, with values around 7.45. The genetic characteristics of Agrosavia La 22 make it less susceptible to diseases and pests compared to common yellow arracacha [14].

Despite the benefits, key stakeholders mentioned a loss of postharvest quality in Agrosavia La 22 due to tuber root fissuring, which is a limitation for its continued adoption. This observation aligns with studies where varieties are preferred for their storage longevity and disease resistance. Another critical aspect is the low availability of quality seeds in Cajamarca, which can negatively affect adoption and crop management.

In social terms, the food security index scored 4.11 in 2021, 3.25 in 2022, and 4.30 in 2023, underscoring the importance of ensuring access to quality food through stable production. Research in Bangladesh emphasizes the potential of the arracacha crop as a resilient food source for food security [33].

The product quality indicator showed variations, increasing from 5.72 in 2021 to 5.90 in 2022, followed by a significant drop to 2.50 in 2023, indicating a nearly 50% decline in the last year. This decrease is primarily attributed to the susceptibility of the Agrosavia La 22 variety to root tuber cracking, as reported by key stakeholders in the region. However, the adoption of this new variety has also led to a reduction in waste and lower use of chemical products in the final stages of agricultural production. Examining the susceptibility of Agrosavia La 22 to root tuber cracking, our findings align with a study on technology adoption rates in Cajamarca. This study identified a 54% gap in adopting practices for managing seed production with proper phytosanitary quality in arracacha. This gap often results from improper handling by farmers when dealing with new varieties, which can lead to increased susceptibility to root cracking in the commercial product. These findings highlight the necessity to strengthen training programs for farmers, focusing on managing and handling high-quality phytosanitary seeds to mitigate this issue [33,34].

Income generation, assessed through the dimensions of security, stability, distribution, diversity, and quantity of income, showed a progressive increase, reaching an index of 5.40 for the studied group. This increase is attributed to the enhanced productivity of the new variety and the resulting income generation for farmers.

The income generation indicator stabilized over the past two years, with values of 0.89 in 2021, 5.00 in 2022, and 5.40 in 2023. This stability is linked to the adoption of the new arracacha variety. Similar results were found in studies by Fritzen et al. [11], where the indicator reached a value of 14.5, reflecting market access stability, better prices, and direct sales associated with the organic transition of transient crops. Direct contact with producers, understanding their realities, and engaging in discussions to generate appropriate knowledge and technologies that improve their incomes is essential. Key stakeholders mention that facilitating the process for producers is achieved through interaction and visits [35,36].

The dedication and profile of the responsible person and managerial actions indicator showed a downward trend with values of 1.28 in 2021, 0.90 in 2022, and 0.50 in 2023, as the new variety requires less management time according to farmers. However, other studies report a value of 8.8 for this indicator, highlighting the importance of training those responsible for crop management, involving family members in farm management, and using accounting systems, formal planning, and certification. It is recommended that research entities connect farmers with other projects and entities to improve this aspect [11,37].

5. Conclusions

The adoption of the Agrosavia La 22 variety has demonstrated substantial economic, environmental, and social benefits, significantly contributing to the sustainability of arracacha production in the region. Notably, in Cajamarca (Tolima), the adoption of this variety has led to a 60% increase in productivity and a reduction in input costs by USD 347 per hectare. These outcomes have been driven by effective social learning processes and continuous access to agricultural technologies. However, challenges remain, particularly regarding postharvest quality and seed availability. Addressing these issues is crucial to maximizing and sustaining the benefits of this variety.

By 2023, Agrosavia La 22 accounted for 84.1% of the total area planted with arracacha. This widespread adoption has resulted in a significant increase in agricultural incomes, with producer surplus rising from USD 30.95 to USD 651.16 per hectare. Despite these economic gains, a 10% decrease in product quality due to susceptibility to cracking highlights the need for additional farmer training to optimize outcomes. From an environmental perspective, the adoption of Agrosavia La 22 has led to reduced pesticide and fertilizer use, contributing to a decrease in greenhouse gas emissions (324.05 kg CO₂-eq ha⁻¹) and promoting environmental sustainability. Nevertheless, the continuous use of multiple production cycles has caused soil degradation, underscoring the importance of implementing sustainable agricultural practices.

The findings also suggest that the methods used in this study, particularly the Ambitec-Agro methodology, hold significant potential for application to other crops within the root and tuber segment and other agricultural species facing similar economic, social, and environmental sustainability challenges. The adaptability of this methodology allows for its use in analyzing the adoption of new varieties and technological offerings in various crops, making it a valuable tool for assessing the impact of institutional technologies.

Moreover, the reduced greenhouse gas emissions and enhanced eco-efficiency associated with Agrosavia La 22 highlight its alignment with sustainable agricultural objectives. These results are promising not only for arracacha production but also for other crops, particularly within the families Euphorbiaceae, Solanaceae, and Dioscoreaceae, which are critical for food security and the rural economy in Colombia and other developing countries. Looking ahead, future research should focus on exploring the transferability of these methods to other crops and regions and investigating additional areas such as postharvest management, market dynamics, and long-term environmental impacts. Such studies would provide valuable insights to further refine and adapt the methodologies, ensuring that they remain relevant and effective in different agricultural contexts.