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Volume 15
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Agronomy, Volume 15, Issue 9 (September 2025) – 177 articles

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19 pages, 1238 KB  
Article
Mechanism of Modified Biochar in Mitigating Carbon and Nitrogen Loss in Drought Soil with Green Manure Application
by Ziyang Zhu, Lu Zhang, Fangyuan Chen, Wenyan Duan, Fangfang Li and Di Zhang
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2193; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092193 (registering DOI) - 14 Sep 2025
Abstract
With the frequent occurrence of global droughts, modified biochar has demonstrated the potential to be an efficient soil amendment, which could affect carbon and nitrogen sequestration in arid soil. Therefore, this study investigated the co-application of pristine biochar (BC), Fe-modified biochar (FB) and [...] Read more.
With the frequent occurrence of global droughts, modified biochar has demonstrated the potential to be an efficient soil amendment, which could affect carbon and nitrogen sequestration in arid soil. Therefore, this study investigated the co-application of pristine biochar (BC), Fe-modified biochar (FB) and H2O2-modified biochar (HB) with green manure during a 70-day laboratory incubation under drought conditions and normal moisture conditions. The emissions were quantified using gas chromatography, while microbial necromass carbon and nitrogen were measured by quantifying the amino sugar content by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, and other soil carbon and nitrogen fractions were determined through chemical analysis. The results revealed that under drought conditions, compared to BC co-application with green manure, the total carbon loss of FB and HB co-application with green manure was reduced from 24.38% to 13.14% and 14.27%, respectively, and the total nitrogen loss was also reduced from 14.61% to 7.23% and 7.27%, respectively. This reduction occurred because FB and HB protected soil organic matter through iron oxide binding and micropore adsorption, thereby increasing the content of soil total humus acid (>5%) and microbial necromass nitrogen (>16%). In addition, under normal moisture conditions, BC, FB and HB co-application with green manure enhanced microbial activity and promoted the formation of stable total humus acid, thereby enhancing carbon and nitrogen sequestration. In conclusion, this study provides crucial theoretical support for the optimization of the green manure return via modified biochar co-application in arid environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)
15 pages, 2687 KB  
Article
Multi-Stage Salt Tolerance in Leymus chinensis: Contrasting Responses at Germination and Seedling Stages
by Mingxue Shi, Mengdan Sun, Dandan Zhao, Shaoyang Li, Wenwen Qi, Shiman Chen, Jushan Liu and Hongyuan Ma
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2192; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092192 (registering DOI) - 14 Sep 2025
Abstract
Soil salinity poses a significant challenge for global agriculture and ecosystems, severely impacting plant growth and land-use efficiency. Leymus chinensis (L. chinensis) is a perennial grass with a high potential for saline soil restoration, yet little is known about whether its [...] Read more.
Soil salinity poses a significant challenge for global agriculture and ecosystems, severely impacting plant growth and land-use efficiency. Leymus chinensis (L. chinensis) is a perennial grass with a high potential for saline soil restoration, yet little is known about whether its salt tolerance during germination aligns with that during seedling development, which are considered the most salt-sensitive stages of its life cycle. Therefore, to investigate whether there is a correlation between salt tolerance during germination and the seedling stage, we evaluated the germination, growth, and survival of 10 genotypes of (G1–G10) L. chinensis under 0, 50, 100, and 150 mM NaCl stress over 12 weeks. Key indicators, including germination traits (germination percentage, radicle length, and shoot length), plant height, and survival rate, were integrated into stage-specific Comprehensive Evaluation Values (D value) to quantify salt tolerance. Salt stress significantly suppressed germination and seedling performance, with inter-genotypic variation. For example, G3 showed only an 18.0% reduction in germination percentage and 62.5% survival rate at 150 mM NaCl, while other genotypes had a 42.0–88.0% germination loss and over 90.0% mortality. However, a correlation analysis showed a positive yet non-significant correlation between D-Germination and D-Survival. Notably, D-Plant Height was negatively correlated with both D-Germination and D-Survival, with G3 and G8 displaying contrasting stress adaptation strategies. Collectively, these results indicate that salt tolerance in L. chinensis is both stage-specific and genotype-specific and that performance at germination does not reliably predict later survival. The findings of this study provide valuable germplasm resources and a theoretical basis for forage breeding and grassland restoration. The identified genotypes, G3 and G8, can serve as important materials for research on salt tolerance mechanisms and breeding programs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Grassland and Pasture Science)
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22 pages, 4402 KB  
Article
Interactive Effects of Different Field Capacity and Nitrogen Levels on Soil Fertility and Microbial Community Structure in the Root Zone of Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) Seedlings in an Arid Region of Southern Xinjiang, China
by Yunqi Ma, Haoyang Liu, Junpan Sun, Cuiyun Wu and Yuyang Zhang
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2191; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092191 (registering DOI) - 14 Sep 2025
Abstract
Understanding the regulatory mechanisms of water–nitrogen coupling effects on soil–plant–microbe systems in arid regions is crucial for sustainable agricultural development. This study systematically investigated the interactive effects of field capacity (75% vs. 45%) and nitrogen application rates (100 vs. 300 kg ha−1 [...] Read more.
Understanding the regulatory mechanisms of water–nitrogen coupling effects on soil–plant–microbe systems in arid regions is crucial for sustainable agricultural development. This study systematically investigated the interactive effects of field capacity (75% vs. 45%) and nitrogen application rates (100 vs. 300 kg ha−1) combined with different enhanced-efficiency nitrogen fertilizers (EENFs) on rhizosphere soil fertility and microbial community structure of Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) seedlings through a two-year pot experiment. Two-year-old jujube seedlings were employed with five treatments: NS (urea), NM (urease inhibitor), XH (nitrification inhibitor), W (microbial fertilizer), and CK (control), to analyze soil physicochemical properties and microbial community responses. Soil available N accumulated under high-N/adequate moisture but declined under drought. NM curbed NH3 volatilization by 32.38–43.22%, while XH increased NH4+-N by 35.76%. Drought raised microbial α-diversity (bacteria + 33.88–37.5%, fungi + 43.62–68.75%). NM demonstrated optimal performance in ammonia volatilization (32.38–43.22% reduction), while XH showed notable efficacy in ammonium-N regulation (35.76% enhancement). Microbial α-diversity exhibited enhanced responses under drought stress, with bacterial and fungal community improvements reaching 33.88–37.5% and 43.62–68.75%. Redundancy analysis showed environmental factors explained more community variance under water stress (bacteria: 79.19→88.76%; fungi: 64.64→92.52%). These findings provide theoretical support for jujube cultivation in arid zones, demonstrate the potential of targeted EENFs, and offer new insights for precision water–fertilizer and microbial management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)
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20 pages, 2828 KB  
Article
Transcriptome Analysis of the Regulatory Mechanism of Exogenous Manganese Sulfate Application on Wheat Grain Yield and Carotenoids
by Na Yang, Ke Wang, Jiancheng Zhang, Xiaoyan Jiao, Zhiguo Yang, Jian Wang and Sha Yang
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2190; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092190 (registering DOI) - 14 Sep 2025
Abstract
Given the critical role of manganese (Mn) as an essential micronutrient in wheat growth and development and the high efficiency of foliar fertilization in optimizing nutrient uptake and improving crop quality, this study aimed to elucidate the regulatory effects of exogenous manganese sulfate [...] Read more.
Given the critical role of manganese (Mn) as an essential micronutrient in wheat growth and development and the high efficiency of foliar fertilization in optimizing nutrient uptake and improving crop quality, this study aimed to elucidate the regulatory effects of exogenous manganese sulfate application on wheat grain yield and carotenoid accumulation. Methods: Field experiments were conducted from 2022 to 2024 at the Shuitou Experimental Station of the Cotton Research Institute, Shanxi Agricultural University (35°11′ N, 111°05′ E), using the wheat cultivar ‘Jinmai 110’. Foliar applications of manganese sulfate were administered at concentrations of 0.5 g/kg, 1.0 g/kg, and 1.5 g/kg, with water serving as the control (CTRL). Spraying was conducted on the upper canopy during the flowering and grain-filling stages, applied every 7 days for a total of three times. Samples for transcriptomic analysis were collected within 24 h of the final application. At maturity, yield-related traits and grain carotenoid contents were assessed. Results: Foliar application of 1.0 g/kg MnSO4 significantly enhanced both grain yield and carotenoid content in wheat. Transcriptome sequencing revealed that treatment with 1.0 g/kg manganese sulfate (M2) resulted in 4761 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), including 2933 upregulated and 1828 downregulated genes, relative to CTRL. Gene Ontology (GO) analysis showed that in the M2 vs. CTRL comparison, 819 GO terms were significantly enriched among upregulated DEGs and 630 among downregulated DEGs. Specifically, upregulated genes were associated with 427 biological process terms and 299 cellular component terms, while downregulated genes were linked to 361 biological processes and 211 cellular components. Enriched functions primarily included cellular processes, metabolic processes, catalytic activity, and binding. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis revealed 809 annotations for upregulated DEGs and 330 for downregulated DEGs, mainly related to photosynthesis, carotenoid biosynthesis, phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, and plant hormone signal transduction. In total, 43,395 alternative splicing (AS) events were identified from 17,165 genes, including 445 upregulated and 319 downregulated AS events, primarily enriched in photosynthesis and plant hormone-related pathways. Conclusion: Foliar application of manganese sulfate significantly modulates gene expression in wheat grains, thereby improving both yield and carotenoid accumulation. Key biological processes affected include photosynthesis, plant hormone signal transduction, and the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway. The interactions among these regulatory networks constitute a complex molecular mechanism through which exogenous Mn influences agronomic traits. These findings provide mechanistic insights and practical implications for enhancing wheat productivity and nutritional quality through foliar manganese application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)
21 pages, 3032 KB  
Article
Comparative Genomic and Transcriptomic Analysis Uncovers Metabolic Mechanisms Underlying Drought Tolerance Variation in Maize
by Yuxuan Li, Tianze Zhu, Yunyun Wang, Ye Sun, Pengcheng Li and Houmiao Wang
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2189; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092189 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025
Abstract
Drought stress severely limits maize (Zea mays L.) productivity worldwide, yet the molecular mechanisms underlying natural variation in drought tolerance remain poorly understood. We conducted a comprehensive comparative analysis using transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq) and whole-genome resequencing of two inbred maize lines with [...] Read more.
Drought stress severely limits maize (Zea mays L.) productivity worldwide, yet the molecular mechanisms underlying natural variation in drought tolerance remain poorly understood. We conducted a comprehensive comparative analysis using transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq) and whole-genome resequencing of two inbred maize lines with contrasting drought tolerance: drought-tolerant line A193 and drought-sensitive line MP23. Under drought stress, A193 exhibited superior photosynthetic performance and an 89% survival rate compared to only 11% for MP23. Transcriptome analysis identified substantial gene expression differences, with 7279 and 5991 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the two genotypes under control and drought conditions, respectively. Whole-genome resequencing identified 5,306,884 single-nucleotide polymorphisms and 1,133,400 insertions/deletions between the two lines. Integration of transcriptomic and genomic data revealed 2050 DEGs exhibiting genomic variations (DEVGs). Functional enrichment analysis revealed significant enrichment in starch and sucrose metabolism, benzoxazinoid biosynthesis, and amino acid metabolism pathways. Thirty DEVGs were identified in starch and sucrose metabolism, with 15 genes upregulated in A193, including beta-amylase, sucrose synthases, and starch synthase. Six DEVGs in benzoxazinoid biosynthesis showed stress-protective upregulation in A193. Additionally, 14 DEVGs in amino acid metabolism displayed genotype-specific expression patterns. Our findings demonstrate that superior drought tolerance in A193 is associated with enhanced metabolic reprogramming. Prioritized drought tolerance genes may provide direct targets for functional investigation or allelic mining. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)
13 pages, 1294 KB  
Article
Transcriptome-Based Analysis of Mitochondrial Influence on Key Agronomic Traits and Nutritional Components in Auricularia heimuer
by Kaisheng Shao, Fangjie Yao, Ming Fang, Lixin Lu, Xiaoxu Ma, Wei Wang, Jingjing Meng, Xu Sun, Yuling Cui and Jian Sun
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2188; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092188 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025
Abstract
Mitochondria play a pivotal role in fungal growth, development, and metabolic regulation, yet their significance has often been overlooked in traditional breeding programs. Auricularia heimuer, the second most widely cultivated edible fungus in China, has attracted increasing attention due to its nutritional [...] Read more.
Mitochondria play a pivotal role in fungal growth, development, and metabolic regulation, yet their significance has often been overlooked in traditional breeding programs. Auricularia heimuer, the second most widely cultivated edible fungus in China, has attracted increasing attention due to its nutritional and health-promoting properties, underscoring the urgent need for the development of functional cultivars and the elucidation of mitochondrial regulatory mechanisms. In this study, we constructed isonuclear alloplasmic strains with identical nuclear genotypes but distinct mitochondrial backgrounds. Comparative analyses of mycelial growth, fruiting body morphology, and nutritional composition were conducted, alongside transcriptomic profiling. The results showed no significant morphological differences on sawdust-based medium; however, on PDA medium, the strains exhibited notable differences in growth rate, melanin content, β-glucan levels, iron ion concentration, and amino acid content. Transcriptomic analysis identified 3,385 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), which were enriched in pathways related to lysine biosynthesis, purine metabolism, DNA replication, and repair. Key DEGs involved in lysine biosynthesis were found to encode aminoadipate reductase (AAR) and saccharine dehydrogenase (SDH), with AAR localized in the cytoplasm and potentially regulating lysine synthesis through its enzymatic activity. This study highlights the critical influence of mitochondrial genes on the metabolic composition and transcriptional landscape of A. heimuer, providing a theoretical foundation for genetic improvement and the development of functional fungal cultivars. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)
22 pages, 2100 KB  
Article
Simulation of Winter Wheat Gross Primary Productivity Incorporating Solar-Induced Chlorophyll Fluorescence
by Xuegui Zhang, Yao Li, Xiaoya Wang, Jiatun Xu and Huanjie Cai
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2187; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092187 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025
Abstract
Gross primary productivity (GPP) is a key indicator for assessing carbon uptake capacity and photosynthetic productivity in agricultural ecosystems, playing a crucial role in regional carbon cycle evaluation and sustainable agriculture development. However, traditional mechanistic light use efficiency (LUE) models exhibit variable accuracy [...] Read more.
Gross primary productivity (GPP) is a key indicator for assessing carbon uptake capacity and photosynthetic productivity in agricultural ecosystems, playing a crucial role in regional carbon cycle evaluation and sustainable agriculture development. However, traditional mechanistic light use efficiency (LUE) models exhibit variable accuracy under different climatic conditions and crop types. Machine learning models, while demonstrating strong fitting capabilities, heavily depend on the selection of input features and data availability. This study focuses on winter wheat in the Guanzhong region, utilizing continuous field observation data from the 2020–2022 growing seasons to develop five machine learning models: Ridge Regression (Ridge), Random Forest (RF), Support Vector Regression (SVR), Gradient Boosting Regression (GB), and a stacking-based ensemble learning model (LSM). These models were compared with the LUE model under two scenarios, excluding and including solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF), to evaluate the contribution of SIF to GPP estimation accuracy. The results indicate significant differences in GPP estimation performance among the machine learning models, with LSM outperforming others in both scenarios. Without SIF, LSM achieved an average R2 of 0.87, surpassing individual models (0.72–0.83), demonstrating strong stability and generalization ability. With SIF inclusion, all machine learning models showed marked accuracy improvements, with LSM’s average R2 rising to 0.91, highlighting SIF’s critical role in capturing photosynthetic dynamics. Although the LUE model approached machine learning model accuracy in some growth stages, its overall performance was limited by structural constraints. This study demonstrates that ensemble learning methods integrating multi-source observations offer significant advantages for high-precision winter wheat GPP estimation, and that incorporating SIF as a physiological indicator further enhances model robustness and predictive capacity. The findings validate the potential of combining ensemble learning and photosynthetic physiological parameters to improve GPP retrieval accuracy, providing a reliable technical pathway for agricultural ecosystem carbon flux estimation and informing strategies for climate change adaptation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)
21 pages, 1766 KB  
Review
Nanoparticles as Potential Eustressors in Plants
by Susana Rodríguez-Jurado, Ramón Gerardo Guevara-González, Humberto Aguirre-Becerra, Karen Esquivel-Escalante and Ana Angélica Feregrino-Pérez
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2186; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092186 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025
Abstract
In recent years, the acceleration of climate change and the growing demand for higher-quality food to meet the needs of an expanding population have become pressing challenges. Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising tool in agriculture, particularly through the application of nanoparticles (NPs). [...] Read more.
In recent years, the acceleration of climate change and the growing demand for higher-quality food to meet the needs of an expanding population have become pressing challenges. Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising tool in agriculture, particularly through the application of nanoparticles (NPs). Recent studies highlight their potential to enhance plant performance, improve resistance to environmental stresses, and act as eustressors—stimuli that activate beneficial adaptive responses. Nanoparticles have been shown to stimulate plant defense systems (elicitation), promote growth and productivity, and improve crop quality by modulating physiological and biochemical pathways. Their role in enhancing adaptive capacity under diverse stress conditions makes them valuable candidates for sustainable agricultural strategies. However, a critical knowledge gap remains: the definition of eustress dose intervals. Establishing these thresholds is essential for maximizing the positive effects of NPs while minimizing risks. Finally, the need to define safe eustress dose intervals is highlighted as a critical step toward maximizing agricultural benefits while minimizing ecological and health risks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multifunctional Nanoparticles and Nano-Enabled Pesticides, Herbicides and Fertilizers in Agricultural Applications)
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30 pages, 2503 KB  
Review
A Systematic Review of 59 Field Robots for Agricultural Tasks: Applications, Trends, and Future Directions
by Mattia Fontani, Sofia Matilde Luglio, Lorenzo Gagliardi, Andrea Peruzzi, Christian Frasconi, Michele Raffaelli and Marco Fontanelli
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2185; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092185 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025
Abstract
Climate change and labour shortage are re-shaping farming methods. Agricultural tasks are often hard, tedious and repetitive for operators, and farms struggle to find specialized operators for such works. For this and other reasons (i.e., the increasing costs of agricultural labour) more and [...] Read more.
Climate change and labour shortage are re-shaping farming methods. Agricultural tasks are often hard, tedious and repetitive for operators, and farms struggle to find specialized operators for such works. For this and other reasons (i.e., the increasing costs of agricultural labour) more and more farmers have decided to switch to autonomous (or semi-autonomous) field robots. In the past decade, an increasing number of robots has filled the market of agricultural machines all over the world. These machines can easily cover long and repetitive tasks, while operators can be employed in other jobs inside the farms. This paper reviews the current state-of-the-art of autonomous robots for agricultural operations, dividing them into categories based on main tasks, to analyze their main characteristics and their fields of applications. Seven main tasks were identified: multi-purpose, harvesting, mechanical weeding, pest control and chemical weeding, scouting and monitoring, transplanting and tilling-sowing. Field robots were divided into these categories, and different characteristics were analyzed, such as engine type, traction system, application field, safety sensors, navigation system, country of provenience and presence on the market. The aim of this review is to provide a global view on agricultural platforms developed in the past decade, analyzing their characteristics and providing future perspectives for next robotic platforms. The analysis conducted on 59 field robots, those already available on the market and not, revealed that one fifth of the platforms comes from Asia, and 63% of all of them are powered by electricity (rechargeable batteries, not solar powered) and that numerous platforms base their navigation system on RTK-GPS signal, 28 out of 59, and safety on LiDAR sensor (12 out of 59). This review considered machines of different size, highlighting different possible choices for field operations and tasks. It is difficult to predict market trends as several possibilities exist, like fleets of small robots or bigger size platforms. Future research and policies should focus on improving navigation and safety systems, reducing emissions and improving level of autonomy of robotic platforms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress in Agricultural Robots in Arable Farming)
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18 pages, 3058 KB  
Article
Optimizing Growth, Physiology, and Saponin Production in Primula veris L. Through Tailored LED Light Spectra for Energy-Efficient Cultivation
by Nektaria Tsivelika, Danai Koumparelou, Ioanna Chatzigeorgiou, Ilektra Sperdouli, Eleni Abraham, Sampson Panajiotidis, Andrea Angeli, Georgios K. Ntinas, Stefan Martens and Eirini Sarrou
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2184; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092184 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025
Abstract
Primula veris L. (cowslip) is a medicinal plant traditionally used for respiratory ailments, with its therapeutic properties attributed to triterpene saponins and phenolic glycosides found in the roots and the aerial parts. The present study aimed to investigate the impact of different LED [...] Read more.
Primula veris L. (cowslip) is a medicinal plant traditionally used for respiratory ailments, with its therapeutic properties attributed to triterpene saponins and phenolic glycosides found in the roots and the aerial parts. The present study aimed to investigate the impact of different LED light spectra (red, blue, red:blue, and white fluorescent as a control) on P. veris’s relative growth rate, physiology, and secondary metabolite production to optimize its cultivation under controlled conditions. The results demonstrate that the light quality significantly influences P. veris’s growth characteristics, physiology, and secondary metabolite production. Red light promoted leaf expansion, while the red:blue LED combination enhanced the root fresh weight and concentration of total chlorophylls and carotenoids in primrose leaves in comparison to the white fluorescent and solitary red light, respectively. Red light significantly increased the accumulation of key secondary metabolites (primeverin, primulaverin, and primulic acids) in roots during the flowering phase compared with the white inflorescent. In addition, the concentration of phenolic compounds was strongly influenced, showing a decrease between the vegetative and the flowering stage of development. Finally, this study highlights the potential of tailored LED lighting to optimize P. veris cultivation, enhancing both biomass and the production of valuable bioactive compounds, taking into account the developmental stage of the plants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Light Environment Regulation of Crop Growth)
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20 pages, 340 KB  
Article
Saffron—Red Gold: Enhancing Its Profitability Through the Sustainable Cultivation and Valorization of Its By-Products
by Cinzia Barbieri, Stefania Stelluti and Valentina Scariot
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2183; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092183 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025
Abstract
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.), a perennial plant of the Iridaceae family, which is also known as “red gold”, is one of the most expensive spices throughout the world. Originally, it was mainly used as a condiment and natural dye for food, and [...] Read more.
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.), a perennial plant of the Iridaceae family, which is also known as “red gold”, is one of the most expensive spices throughout the world. Originally, it was mainly used as a condiment and natural dye for food, and as a medicinal plant in folk medicine. Its cultivation is characterized by an extensive use of labor, since most of the crop management techniques (e.g., sowing, weeding, flower picking, and stigma separation) are performed manually. The aim of this work is to investigate how the adoption of sustainable cultivation techniques could improve the profitability of saffron at the primary level. Thus, economic and technical data were collected directly on a farm in a marginal area in Northwestern Italy, in order to compare the productivity of traditional and innovative cultivation techniques, which we measured in terms of economic profit. The effect of sustainable practices, such as the use of beneficial microorganisms, that is, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), on the productivity of saffron was considered. In a previous work, AMF inoculation with Rhizophagus intraradices and Funneliformis mosseae led to an increase in the flower and saffron spice yields, compared to uninoculated controls. The profitability of the saffron (including tepals, its by-product) considered in our case study, expressed as economic profit (pure profit), was found to be slightly negative for the traditional cultivation method (without the use of AMF) and also, albeit to a lesser extent, for the innovative technology (with the use of AMF). This slightly negative result is mainly due to the implicit cost of ‘family labor’ for both the traditional and innovative cultivation techniques. The results of our study can be considered a further step in favor of the use of cultivation techniques that improve crop productivity and, at the same time, are sustainable. They also support the spread of minor crops, which, nevertheless, are important to maintain agricultural activities in marginal territories. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Innovations for Sustainable Crop Production in the Mediterranean Region)
48 pages, 2840 KB  
Review
Relevance of Organic Matter Compositions, Structures and Associations to Soil Aggregates and to Sustainable Productivity
by Michael H. B. Hayes and Maria Roulia
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2182; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092182 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025
Abstract
Long-term cultivation practices, in which mineral fertilizers are the only amendments made to crop-supporting soils, are giving rise to the degradation of soil structures in the world’s most fertile soils. This leads to erosion and to the loss of productivity and may well [...] Read more.
Long-term cultivation practices, in which mineral fertilizers are the only amendments made to crop-supporting soils, are giving rise to the degradation of soil structures in the world’s most fertile soils. This leads to erosion and to the loss of productivity and may well become a greater threat than that of global warming. Humic substances (structurally related compounds), and humin (which no longer falls within the modern definitions of humic substances), are major transformation or humification components of organic matter entering the soil, with varying resistance to biological degradation, and properties vastly contributing to soil fertility. There is considerable discussion on the macromolecular structures arising from associations or supramolecular structuring of some components of humic substances. The compositions, structures, shapes, sizes, and surface properties of these molecular components determine their intra- and inter-molecular associations, their interactions with the soil particles, and particularly with the soil inorganic colloids. Such interactions play a vital role in soil aggregates’ formation, which is important for soil health and productivity. In this work, an outline is given of modern methods for the isolation of broadly defined soil organic components, of what is known of their origins (plant or microbial), compositions, sizes and shapes, of how they interact to promote soil structure and productivity, and how the materials composing the hydrophobic fraction form strong associations with the inorganic colloids. A better understanding should be sought of how these interactions and associations take place giving rise to the structured systems that are characteristic of fertile soils. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Humic Substances: Chemistry and Multidimensional Role in Agricultural Systems and Pollution Management)
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21 pages, 1736 KB  
Article
Screening of Sunflower Hybrids Using Physiological and Agronomic Traits
by Antonela Markulj Kulundžić, Dario Iljkić and Ivana Varga
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2181; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092181 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025
Abstract
Researching the photosynthetic activity of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is essential for understanding how different genotypes respond to environmental conditions and utilise solar energy for growth and productivity. The objective of this study was to gain insight into and quantify the adaptation [...] Read more.
Researching the photosynthetic activity of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is essential for understanding how different genotypes respond to environmental conditions and utilise solar energy for growth and productivity. The objective of this study was to gain insight into and quantify the adaptation of ten sunflower hybrids during the flowering stage under field conditions. As part of an ongoing sunflower breeding programme, this research aimed to assess genotypic differences in photosynthetic performance and yield-related traits in response to variable environmental conditions. During the flowering stage, chlorophyll a fluorescence (ChlF) parameters revealed significant genotypic differences in energy fluxes, particularly in ABS/RC, DI0/RC, ET0/RC, and RE0/RC. Those results indicate variability in light-harvesting efficiency and electron transport capacity. Although specific photochemical efficiency indicators (e.g., TR0/RC, TR0/ABS, ET0/TR0) showed slight variation, energy dissipation and photosystem I-related parameters differed significantly among hybrids. Leaf temperature and chlorophyll content also varied and showed moderate correlations with fluorescence-based indicators. Yield components (plant height, head diameter, and seed mass per head) displayed significant differences among sunflower hybrids, with notable opposite patterns between plant height and head size. Revealed strong relationships between photosynthetic performance (PITOTAL, RE0/ABS) and yield traits, particularly plant height and number of seeds per head, were confirmed with correlation analysis. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) distinguished the hybrids into distinct groups. The analysis confirmed physiological and morphological variability among hybrids, enabling effective screening of genotypes for breeding purposes. Photosynthesis is a key physiological trait that directly influences biomass accumulation and seed yield, making it a critical parameter in evaluating the performance and adaptability of various sunflower genotypes. Thus, this study demonstrates the integrative value of combining ChlF, thermal, and agronomic traits for identifying high-performing sunflower hybrids under optimal field conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Anatomical Responses of Crops to Environmental Factors)
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22 pages, 2565 KB  
Article
Interlinked Temperature and Light Effects on Lettuce Photosynthesis and Transpiration: Insights from a Dynamic Whole-Plant Gas Exchange System
by Simon Lauwers, Jonas R. Coussement and Kathy Steppe
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2180; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092180 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025
Abstract
Environmental control in closed environment agricultural systems (CEA) is challenging due to the high energy demand and the dynamic interactions between plants and their heterogeneous phylloclimate. Optimization of crop production in CEA systems therefore requires a thorough understanding of whole-plant functioning and the [...] Read more.
Environmental control in closed environment agricultural systems (CEA) is challenging due to the high energy demand and the dynamic interactions between plants and their heterogeneous phylloclimate. Optimization of crop production in CEA systems therefore requires a thorough understanding of whole-plant functioning and the interconnected plant-climate interactions. Such optimization is limited by an incomplete knowledge of how leaf-level measurements of gas exchange relate to whole-plant processes and how to scale-up point measurements of the heterogeneous environment to inform plant-level decisions. To address both, a dynamic whole-plant gas exchange system was developed to quantify the effect of temperature, relative humidity and light intensity on whole-plant photosynthetic and transpiration rates in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.). Results showed that light intensity was the primary driver for whole-plant photosynthesis, with temperature optima increasing from 5 °C at a photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of 150 µmol·m−2·s−1 to 13 °C at 400 µmolm−2·s−1. These optima for lettuce plants were 10 to 20 °C lower than those observed at leaf level due to a shifted balance between respiration and photosynthesis within the complex habitus of lettuce. The results showed a decoupling of transpiration and photosynthesis under high relative humidity, with vapour pressure deficit (VPD) values of 0.5 kPa or lower, which physically limited transpiration. The newly developed dynamic gas exchange system has proven to be a helpful tool for examining the relative importance and combined effects of environmental factors on whole-plant photosynthesis and transpiration. Potential future applications of this system include research on phylloclimate, implementation in production facilities, and validation of crop models. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Light Environment Regulation of Crop Growth)
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18 pages, 2481 KB  
Article
Composting of Urban Sewage Sludge and Its Application in Quarry Soil Reclamation: A Field Case Study
by Luyao Zhang, Chong Li, Zengbiao Tian, Mengchao Zhang, Xueyuan Feng, Guannan Liu, Zihan Zhu, Liming Dong and Yuhao Wang
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2179; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092179 (registering DOI) - 12 Sep 2025
Abstract
Mining activities often result in ecosystem degradation and landscape destruction. The restoration of abandoned mine lands is particularly challenging due to the poor physicochemical properties and low fertility of the soil, which necessitate the use of soil amendments. Sewage sludge, which contains abundant [...] Read more.
Mining activities often result in ecosystem degradation and landscape destruction. The restoration of abandoned mine lands is particularly challenging due to the poor physicochemical properties and low fertility of the soil, which necessitate the use of soil amendments. Sewage sludge, which contains abundant nutrients, has potential for use in mine soil restoration. Four separate piles of sewage sludge, each weighing 5 tons, were subjected to aerobic composting and then applied at different rates (0%, 2%, 5%, 10%, and 20%) to reclaim an abandoned mine land site (500 m2). During the composting process, the pH, moisture content, organic matter (OM), and dissolved organic matter (DOM) of the sewage sludge all decreased, while electrical conductivity (EC) and germination index (GI) increased. The sewage sludge compost reached maturity after 83 days. Soil pH and bulk density decreased with increasing application levels, whereas soil fertility, such as OM, alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen, available phosphorus (AP), and available potassium (AK), significantly improved after application of sewage sludge compost. Vegetation coverage (ryegrass and alfalfa) reached 100% after 2 months at the 20% application level. Fresh biomass and plant height were significantly higher at all application levels compared to the control (p < 0.05). Results from Pearson’s correlation, redundancy analysis (RDA), and the random forest model indicated that soil fertility, particularly AP, OM, and alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen, rather than soil physicochemical properties, was the key factor influencing the restoration success of the mine site. The use of sewage sludge compost as a soil amendment for reclaiming abandoned mine lands is feasible and can help reduce the ecological restoration costs of mining. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Agricultural Inputs and Soil–Plant–Microbe Interactions for Sustainable Agronomy)
14 pages, 445 KB  
Article
Effective Yield Protection in Organic Potato Cultivation Through the Application of Diverse Strategies Utilizing Basic Substances
by Jolanta Kowalska, Józef Tyburski, Joanna Krzymińska and Magdalena Jakubowska
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2178; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092178 (registering DOI) - 12 Sep 2025
Abstract
Basic substances of plant or animal origin are permitted for use in the protection of organic crops. Experiments were performed under laboratory, greenhouse, and field conditions using emulsified sunflower oil solution at 10%, water onion extract (Allium cepa L.) at 25%, chitosan [...] Read more.
Basic substances of plant or animal origin are permitted for use in the protection of organic crops. Experiments were performed under laboratory, greenhouse, and field conditions using emulsified sunflower oil solution at 10%, water onion extract (Allium cepa L.) at 25%, chitosan at 2%, two commercial strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (US 05 and Coobra), and a low dose of copper (2 kg/ha) to inhibit the growth of Phytophthora infestans, to contribute to the extension of the vegetation period, and to maintain the photosynthetic capacity responsible for the quantity of yield. Potato varieties with different levels of resistance to the pathogen were planted, and preventive treatments were performed. In the greenhouse experiment, inoculation of potato plants with the pathogen was carried out. The aim of the study was to develop strategies for the combined or alternating use of basic substances and copper in order to delay the appearance of potato late blight symptoms and keep them below the level of economic damage. The main factor determining the effectiveness of the tested strategies was the yield. Protective treatments contributed to an increase in yield compared with untreated plants. Strategies combining copper with sunflower oil, onion extract, or chitosan reduced late blight symptoms; however, the final effect on plant health and yields depended on the susceptibility of the variety to the pathogen. Strategies based solely on basic substances were effective in protecting potato varieties that were less susceptible to P. infestans (e.g., Red Sonya, Lilly, Tajfun). For more-susceptible varieties (e.g., Vineta, Satina, Lord) copper pesticide must be included in the treatment strategy; however, copper can be applied either as the first four foliar sprays followed by two treatments with basic substances or, alternately, with them. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Sustainable Agriculture: Biopesticides and the Biological Control for Pest Management)
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16 pages, 2717 KB  
Article
Slope Construction on Croplands in Reclaimed Tidal Flats of Korea Improved Surface Drainage but Not Soybean Growth Due to Weather Variability
by Seung-Beom Lee, Eun-Su Song, Kwang-Seung Lee, Jin-Hyeob Kwak and Woo-Jung Choi
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2177; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092177 - 12 Sep 2025
Abstract
In South Korea, reclaimed coastal tidelands (RTLs) are generally used for rice cultivation rather than upland cultivation; however, there is growing social pressure to change the use of RTLs to upland crop production to increase the self-sufficiency rate regarding grain. However, RTLs are [...] Read more.
In South Korea, reclaimed coastal tidelands (RTLs) are generally used for rice cultivation rather than upland cultivation; however, there is growing social pressure to change the use of RTLs to upland crop production to increase the self-sufficiency rate regarding grain. However, RTLs are not suitable for cultivating upland crops due to their high salinity, poor drainage, and shallow groundwater levels. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a cost-effective drainage method, such as surface drainage. This study investigated the effects of slope construction on surface drainage and on the growth and yield of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) in poorly drained fields at the Saemangeum RTL, which is the largest RTL district in South Korea. Slopes were constructed at angles of 0°, 3°, and 5°; soybean was sown in June 2023 (wet season) and May 2024 (dry season); and growth of soybean was monitored at the flowering, pod-filling, and harvest stages. Soil pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and mineral nitrogen (NH4+ and NO3−) were measured monthly, while daily changes in soil water content were measured using soil sensors. As expected, slope construction enhanced surface runoff from the upper to lower slope areas under heavy rainfall, but soil erosion was also increased. Soybean growth and yield were higher in the upper sites for the wet-season conditions mainly due to lowered moisture stress. For the dry-season, there was no significant differences in soybean growth and yield across the slopes due to drought and high temperatures during flowering and pod-filling stages. Soybean growth and yield parameters were negatively correlated with both soil water content and pH. Slope construction improves surface drainage but does not consistently translate into higher soybean yields, highlighting its limited agronomic and economic value when used alone. Instead, integrated management practices combining drainage improvement, supplemental irrigation, and soil erosion reduction need to be implemented to support sustainable upland cropping in coastal RTLs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future of Climate-Neutral and Resilient Agriculture Systems)
26 pages, 3449 KB  
Article
Isolation and Identification of Antagonistic Bacteria with Common Bacterial Blight of Common Bean and Their Mechanism as Biological Control
by Ming Liu, Jiarui Cui, Xin Wang and Yongxia Guo
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2176; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092176 (registering DOI) - 12 Sep 2025
Abstract
Common bacterial blight (CBB), caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli (Xap) and Xanthomonas fuscans subsp. fuscans (Xff), is a devastating disease threatening global common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) production. Current reliance on copper-based chemicals has led to environmental toxicity and pathogen resistance, [...] Read more.
Common bacterial blight (CBB), caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli (Xap) and Xanthomonas fuscans subsp. fuscans (Xff), is a devastating disease threatening global common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) production. Current reliance on copper-based chemicals has led to environmental toxicity and pathogen resistance, resulting in the need for sustainable alternatives. Here, we report the first biocontrol strain of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (KY2) that is simultaneously effective against both Xap and Xff. Isolated from the rhizosphere of healthy common bean growing in a high-disease-incidence field, KY2 exhibited broad antagonism, with inhibition zones of 18.17 ± 0.58 mm and 24.00 ± 1.50 mm against Xap and Xff, respectively. Pot experiments revealed a 66.12% curative control efficacy against Xff, slightly lower than the chemical agent 12% Zhongshengmycin. Mechanistically, KY2 alleviated oxidative stress by enhancing antioxidant enzyme activity levels and reducing malondialdehyde accumulation. A transcriptome analysis further uncovered KY2-induced systemic resistance via phenylpropanoid biosynthesis and defense-related pathways. It also demonstrated adaptability to pH 4–8, 20–40 °C, and ≤6% NaCl. However, this study is limited to pot trials, necessitating future field validation to assess practical scalability. These findings establish KY2 as a novel, eco-friendly candidate for CBB management, advancing biocontrol strategies against CBB of bean. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)
19 pages, 2238 KB  
Review
Triticale in Mediterranean Cereal Farming: Opportunity or Reality?
by Fernando Martínez-Moreno, Irfan Özberk, Fethiye Özberk and Ignacio Solís
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2175; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092175 - 12 Sep 2025
Abstract
Triticale is a cereal that currently has a cultivated global area of approximately 3.8 Mha. It is widely used as a feed and forage crop. Although winter triticale cultivars are planted in Poland, Germany and Belarus (the main producers), a significant portion of [...] Read more.
Triticale is a cereal that currently has a cultivated global area of approximately 3.8 Mha. It is widely used as a feed and forage crop. Although winter triticale cultivars are planted in Poland, Germany and Belarus (the main producers), a significant portion of their cultivation is carried out in the Mediterranean basin using spring cultivars. Spain and Türkiye are two examples of the success of this crop in terms of promotion, breeding, and expansion. Thus, in 2022/23, 280,000 hectares of triticale were planted in Spain, while 100,000 hectares were planted in Türkiye, ranking 5th and 8th in the world, respectively. Current triticale cultivars have high grain and/or forage yield. Furthermore, dual-purpose cultivars are available and can be intercropped with legumes, which increases their possibilities in the field. Triticale competes well with weeds and is resistant to many diseases. It performs well in acidic soils, and it is tolerant to drought, conditions common in the Mediterranean basin. In the future, funding for spring triticale breeding programs (which are scarce and declining) should be maintained, and projects to improve agronomic techniques and publicize the advantages of this crop could be implemented. Furthermore, the use of triticale for human food could expand in the region, especially in MENA countries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilizing Genetic Resources for Agronomic Traits Improvement: Series III)
23 pages, 2467 KB  
Article
Integrating Solar Energy into German Vineyards: A Geospatial Framework for Identifying Agrivoltaic Potential
by Marcel Christ and Moritz Wagner
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2174; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092174 - 12 Sep 2025
Abstract
This study quantifies where agrivoltaics can be feasibly implemented in German viticulture and presents a transparent GIS pre-screening framework for vineyards. Using plot-level cadastral data from Rhineland-Palatinate (54,078 ha planted area; covering 65% of Germany’s vineyard area), we integrate grid distance to the [...] Read more.
This study quantifies where agrivoltaics can be feasibly implemented in German viticulture and presents a transparent GIS pre-screening framework for vineyards. Using plot-level cadastral data from Rhineland-Palatinate (54,078 ha planted area; covering 65% of Germany’s vineyard area), we integrate grid distance to the nearest connection point, slope, and planting year to identify technically and agronomically suitable sites. Under a 1000 m grid distance threshold, 44% of the planted area falls within potential connection range (15.6 GWp at 0.65 MWp per hectare). Across deployment scenarios, the feasible area spans 1.5–26.1% (0.52–9.17 GWp), with a balanced setting yielding 7.6% (2.68 GWp). We also conducted a one-at-a-time sensitivity analysis; the qualitative ranking of constraints is robust to a ±15% capacity-per-hectare band. The framework identifies plot-level feasibility under stated constraints and indicates where near-term implementation is most likely. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future of Climate-Neutral and Resilient Agriculture Systems)
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20 pages, 1357 KB  
Review
Effects of Root Exudates on Ecological Function and Nitrogen Utilization Strategy of Orchard Multi-Planting System
by Yufeng Li, Yu Zhang, Qishuang He, Shanshan Liu, Fei Ren and Anxiang Lu
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2173; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092173 - 12 Sep 2025
Viewed by 40
Abstract
While root exudates play a crucial role in maintaining ecosystem balance and promoting plant growth, existing research primarily focuses on single ecosystems (e.g., field crops), with systematic investigations of their ecological functions in compound cropping systems, particularly nitrogen (N) cycling mechanisms in orchard [...] Read more.
While root exudates play a crucial role in maintaining ecosystem balance and promoting plant growth, existing research primarily focuses on single ecosystems (e.g., field crops), with systematic investigations of their ecological functions in compound cropping systems, particularly nitrogen (N) cycling mechanisms in orchard multi-cropping systems, remaining limited. This review focuses on the N impact mechanisms mediated by plant root exudates in orchard ecosystems, emphasizing how root exudates optimize soil N activation, absorption, and utilization efficiency by modulating rhizosphere processes (e.g., nitrogen mineralization, root architecture remodeling). Studies indicate that the changes in orchard ecosystem function mediated by organic acids and flavonoids root exudates can significantly reduce nitrogen loss risks and increase the soil nitrogen turnover rate by lowering pH-activated nutrients, balancing the C:N ratio, and immobilizing microbial communities. This process also involves the coordinated regulation of nitrification, denitrification, and microbial fixation. Future research should prioritize investigating the interaction networks and regulatory mechanisms between root exudates of associated orchard crops and N-fixing microorganisms. This research direction will provide a scientific basis for improving the N use efficiency in orchard crops, optimizing fertilizer reduction techniques, and reducing chemical fertilizer usage, providing significant implications for achieving sustainable agricultural development. The theoretical support offers important scientific and practical value for advancing green and sustainable agriculture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Agricultural Inputs and Soil–Plant–Microbe Interactions for Sustainable Agronomy)
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6 pages, 173 KB  
Editorial
Soil Health and Properties in a Changing Environment
by Eugenija Bakšienė and Audrius Kačergius
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2172; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092172 - 12 Sep 2025
Viewed by 62
Abstract
Healthy soil is the foundation of sustainable and productive agroecosystems [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Health and Properties in a Changing Environment)
13 pages, 3253 KB  
Article
Effects of SiO2 Nanoparticles on the Yield and Quality of Sophora tonkinensis Under Drought Stress
by Ying Liang, Shuangshuang Qin, Guili Wei, Ximei Liang and Fan Wei
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2171; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092171 - 11 Sep 2025
Viewed by 94
Abstract
This study investigates the novel application of silicon nanoparticles (SiO2 NPs) to enhance drought tolerance and medicinal quality in the threatened medicinal plant Sophora tonkinensis, providing technical support for its conservation and cultivation. Six treatments were applied: control (CK), CK + [...] Read more.
This study investigates the novel application of silicon nanoparticles (SiO2 NPs) to enhance drought tolerance and medicinal quality in the threatened medicinal plant Sophora tonkinensis, providing technical support for its conservation and cultivation. Six treatments were applied: control (CK), CK + 100 mg/L SiO2 NPs, CK + 200 mg/L SiO2 NPs, drought stress (SD), SD + 100 mg/L SiO2 NPs, SD + 200 mg/L SiO2 NPs. After 21 days of foliar application, we assessed biomass, physio–biochemical parameters (including soluble protein, soluble sugar, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide anion (O2−), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)), as well as concentrations of matrine, oxymatrine, genistin, genistein, total alkaloids, and total flavonoids. Under drought stress, the application of 100 mg/L SiO2 NPs was the most effective treatment for enhancing biomass accumulation and eliciting a coordinated physio–biochemical response. This was demonstrated by a significant increase in leaf soluble protein content and root SOD activity, along with a decrease in oxidative stress markers (H2O2 and O2−). Furthermore, SiO2 NPs application under both normal and drought conditions selectively enhanced the accumulation of bioactive compounds in the roots, with the optimal concentration being compound-specific. Notably, under drought conditions, the application of 200 mg/L SiO2 NPs proved optimal for enhancing the biosynthesis of several key medicinal compounds in the roots. Specifically, this treatment significantly maximized the content of matrine (214.15 μg/g), genistin (4.06 μg/g), genistein (48.56 μg/g), total alkaloids (9.96 mg/g), and total flavonoids (11.44 mg/g) compared to the drought-stressed control (SD). These results demonstrate that SiO2 NPs significantly improve yield and key medicinal components of S. tonkinensis under drought stress, with a differential efficiency depending on the concentration, plant organ, and target compound. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulation of Nanomaterials in Crop Growth and Physiology Under Abiotic Stress)
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17 pages, 3192 KB  
Article
Biochar and Soil Water Synergistically Regulating Root Growth to Affect Photosynthesis in Maize (Zea mays L.)
by Chao Gao, Jingtao Qin, Yan Tian, Jianbo Yang and Guobing Wang
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2170; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092170 - 11 Sep 2025
Viewed by 144
Abstract
In arid/semi-arid regions, strategies to enhance soil water retention are critical for crop productivity. This study elucidates the synergistic regulatory mechanisms of biochar and soil water regulation on maize root growth and photosynthesis. An integrated pot experiment (2023) with three biochar (0, 7.5, [...] Read more.
In arid/semi-arid regions, strategies to enhance soil water retention are critical for crop productivity. This study elucidates the synergistic regulatory mechanisms of biochar and soil water regulation on maize root growth and photosynthesis. An integrated pot experiment (2023) with three biochar (0, 7.5, 15 t ha−1), a field experiment (2024) with two biochar (0, 7.5 t ha−1), and three soil water gradients (sufficient water, moderate drought, and severe drought) were conducted. Pot results showed that biochar applied at 7.5 t ha−1 significantly increased soil-saturated water content by 11.4% and residual water content by 4.7% compared to the control, as confirmed by the fitting van Genuchten model (R2 > 0.94). Maize roots were primarily concentrated in the 5–15 cm soil layer, with root weight density (RWD) increasing by 21.0% under 7.5 t ha−1 biochar treatment. The field experiment based on the pot results showed that biochar attenuated the drop in net photosynthesis (Pn) and stomatal conductance (Gs) under drought, reducing Pn and Gs decline by 24.5% and 21.4%, respectively, and suggesting improved efficiency. The study indicates that 7.5 t ha−1 biochar optimizes maize root growth and photosynthesis through improved soil hydraulic properties, providing a sustainable strategy for arid and semi-arid regional agriculture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Precision Fertilization and Water Management for Sustainable Agriculture)
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21 pages, 1080 KB  
Article
Post-Harvest Loss Reduction in Perishable Crops: Task-Technology Fit and Emotion-Driven Acceptance of On-Farm Transport Robots
by Xinyu Wu and Yiping Jiang
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2169; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092169 - 11 Sep 2025
Viewed by 78
Abstract
As global food security challenges escalate and post-harvest losses in perishable crops remain a critical pressure point, on-farm transport robots have emerged as a promising sustainable solution for transforming farm-to-storage logistics systems and reducing agricultural waste. However, farmer acceptance of robotic transport technologies [...] Read more.
As global food security challenges escalate and post-harvest losses in perishable crops remain a critical pressure point, on-farm transport robots have emerged as a promising sustainable solution for transforming farm-to-storage logistics systems and reducing agricultural waste. However, farmer acceptance of robotic transport technologies remains heterogeneous and represents a critical barrier to achieving widespread adoption of these sustainable agricultural innovations. Existing research has yet to integrate task-technology fit (TTF), anticipated emotions, and anthropomorphism into a unified theoretical framework for understanding sustainable agricultural technology adoption. Drawing on TTF theory and the model of goal-directed behavior, this study proposes a comprehensive model integrating anticipated emotions as mediators and robot anthropomorphism as a moderator. We surveyed 320 farmers and employed PLS-SEM to test our hypotheses. Results indicate that farm transport task complexity, farmer technology readiness, and robot transport functionality significantly strengthen TTF (β = 0.136, 0.358, 0.382, respectively; all p < 0.01). TTF drives acceptance intention through a dual-path emotional mechanism: directly enhancing positive expectancy emotions (β = 0.411, p < 0.001) while reducing negative expectancy emotions (β = −0.150, p < 0.05). Crucially, higher anthropomorphism levels diminish both emotional mediation paths (β = −0.053 and β = −0.027, both p < 0.01), establishing important boundary conditions for sustainable agricultural technology design. These findings suggest that reducing post-harvest losses requires prioritizing functional consistency over overly anthropomorphic designs in agricultural robots, thereby promoting the development of agricultural technologies that are both emotionally resonant and highly functional. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)
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16 pages, 13711 KB  
Article
Regulatory Mechanisms of Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria in Alleviating Microplastic and Heavy Metal Combined Pollution: Insights from Plant Growth and Metagenomic Analysis
by Yan Chen, Han Liu, Yu-Bo Sun, Meng Wang, Yue-Liang Meng, Yong-Qi Liu, Xue-Min Ren, Bai-Lian Larry Li, Xue-Mei Han, Ling Liu and Zhao-Jin Chen
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2168; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092168 - 11 Sep 2025
Viewed by 67
Abstract
The co-occurrence of microplastics and heavy metals in soil can lead to synergistic interactions that may exert more pronounced toxic effects on plant growth. Previous studies have demonstrated the promising potential of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) in mitigating the combined toxicity of microplastics [...] Read more.
The co-occurrence of microplastics and heavy metals in soil can lead to synergistic interactions that may exert more pronounced toxic effects on plant growth. Previous studies have demonstrated the promising potential of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) in mitigating the combined toxicity of microplastics and heavy metals. However, the rhizosphere microbial mechanisms underlying this alleviation remain unclear. Metagenomic sequencing offers significant advantages for microbial functional analysis, yet it has been underutilized in studies involving combined microplastic and heavy metal contamination. In this study, a pot experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of inoculating sorghum with two plant growth-promoting bacterial (PGPB) strains, Bacillus sp. SL-413 and Enterobacter sp. VY-1, on plant tolerance to co-contamination with 13 μm polyethylene (PE) microplastics (0.5%, w/w) and cadmium (Cd, 10 mg kg−1). The impact on rhizosphere microbial community structure and function was assessed using metagenomic analysis. The results showed that PE-Cd co-contamination, compared to Cd alone, caused varying degrees of reduction in sorghum height and biomass, indicating an enhanced toxic effect due to the combined pollutants. Inoculation with PGPB effectively alleviated the PE-Cd combined toxicity, resulting in increases in sorghum height by 4.81–12.50%, biomass by 0.43–38.40%, and Cd accumulation by 6.20–38.07%. Both Cd and PE-Cd treatments, as well as PGPB inoculation, significantly altered the composition of rhizosphere soil bacterial communities, particularly affecting the relative abundances of Ramlibacter, Solirubrobacter, and Streptomyces. Metagenomic analysis further revealed that PE-Cd co-contamination suppressed microbial functional potential in the rhizosphere. However, inoculation with Bacillus sp. SL-413 and Enterobacter sp. VY-1 alleviated the functional stress induced by PE-Cd co-contamination and significantly enhanced microbial gene functions in the soil. Specifically, genes involved in nitrogen and phosphorus cycling increased by 3.35–5.32% and 2.26–7.38%, respectively, compared to the PE-Cd treatment without inoculation. This study provides fundamental data and scientific evidence for understanding the ecotoxicological effects of microplastic and heavy metal co-contamination, as well as the potential for microbial remediation using PGPB. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Agroecosystems: Strategies to Mitigate Plastic Pollution for Sustainable Agriculture)
28 pages, 883 KB  
Review
Waste-Derived Fertilizers: Conversion Technologies, Circular Bioeconomy Perspectives and Agronomic Value
by Dolores Hidalgo, Jesús M. Martín-Marroquín, Francisco Corona and Francisco Verdugo
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2167; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092167 - 11 Sep 2025
Viewed by 87
Abstract
The urgent need to reduce the environmental footprint of agricultural inputs, alongside the rising cost and limited availability of mineral fertilizers, has encouraged the exploration of organic waste materials as alternative nutrient sources. This review examines how organic and nutrient-rich waste streams—from livestock [...] Read more.
The urgent need to reduce the environmental footprint of agricultural inputs, alongside the rising cost and limited availability of mineral fertilizers, has encouraged the exploration of organic waste materials as alternative nutrient sources. This review examines how organic and nutrient-rich waste streams—from livestock excreta and food industry residues to sewage sludge and combustion by-products—can be converted into effective fertilizers through biological, thermal, and chemical processes, reducing dependence on mineral fertilizers and supporting more circular and resilient cropping systems. It also analyzes the agronomic performance of these waste-derived materials in terms of nutrient release dynamics, impact on soil functions, and crop response under different management conditions. Examples of commercial waste-derived fertilizers are included, together with their effects on soil quality and crop productivity, and regulatory frameworks and commercialization challenges are considered, with emphasis on current European policies and real-world product examples. The broader contribution of these practices to climate mitigation, resource recovery, and rural development is also discussed. While promising, the implementation of waste-based fertilization strategies requires further efforts in standardization, safety assurance, and farmer engagement. This article provides an integrated overview of the topic and identifies key areas for future research, innovation, and policy development in support of sustainable nutrient management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)
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20 pages, 3482 KB  
Article
Interaction Regulation Mechanism of Soil Organic Carbon Fraction and Greenhouse Gases by Organic and Inorganic Fertilization
by Jing Wang, Guojun Han, Chunbin Li, Mingzhu He and Jianjun Chen
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2166; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092166 - 11 Sep 2025
Viewed by 155
Abstract
Under conditions of constant total nutrient input, the regulatory mechanisms of soil organic carbon components under gradient replacement ratios of organic materials for chemical fertilizers have not yet been systematically elucidated. This study took “Longjiao No. 2” as the research object, setting up [...] Read more.
Under conditions of constant total nutrient input, the regulatory mechanisms of soil organic carbon components under gradient replacement ratios of organic materials for chemical fertilizers have not yet been systematically elucidated. This study took “Longjiao No. 2” as the research object, setting up CK (no fertilization), T0 (100% chemical fertilizer application), T20 (80% chemical fertilizer + 20% vegetable waste organic fertilizer), T40 (60% chemical fertilizer + 40% vegetable waste organic fertilizer), T60 (40% chemical fertilizer + 60% vegetable waste organic fertilizer), and T80 (20% chemical fertilizer + 80% vegetable waste organic fertilizer) as treatment groups. This study investigated the changes in soil organic carbon and organic carbon component content at different crop growth stages (seedling stage, budding stage, flowering and fruit-setting stage, and fruiting stage) under different organic matter replacement methods of chemical fertilizer treatments. It analyzed the response of greenhouse gas emissions to different fertilization conditions and assessed the changes in soil carbon pool management indices, as well as the interaction mechanisms between soil nutrients, carbon components, and greenhouse gases. The results showed that the combined application of chemical fertilizer and vegetable residue organic fertilizer significantly affected soil carbon pool dynamics and greenhouse gas emissions: the T60 treatment was the most effective, increasing soil organic carbon components at all growth stages. The soil carbon pool management index (CPMI) during the seedling stage was 21.3% higher than that of the T0 treatment, and the stable carbon pool components (MOC and POC) during the fruiting stage were 18.7–22.4% higher. This application mode reduced the global warming potential (GWP) by 25.6% compared to the T0 treatment throughout the entire growth stage. The CO2 emissions peaked 19.3% lower during the flowering and fruit-setting stage. Applying organic fertilizer and chemical fertilizer in a 6:4 ratio balanced carbon turnover and sequestration while achieving the highest yield, providing a basis for low-carbon fertilization and increased production in semi-arid regions’ protected agriculture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)
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27 pages, 14478 KB  
Article
rolB Promotes Adventitious Root Development in Pyrus betulaefolia by Modulating Endogenous Hormones and Gene Expression
by Ting Xie, Weimin Wang, Kuozhen Nie, Zijuan He, Jiaojiao He, Yuxing Zhang, Na Liu and Yingli Li
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2165; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092165 - 11 Sep 2025
Viewed by 122
Abstract
We investigated the effect of Agrobacterium rhizogenes-mediated transformation mof rolB on adventitious root development and endogenous hormones in ‘duli’ (Pyrus betulaefolia) via transcriptomic analysis of wild-type (WT) and rolB-transformed plants. The formation of root primordia occurred earlier [...] Read more.
We investigated the effect of Agrobacterium rhizogenes-mediated transformation mof rolB on adventitious root development and endogenous hormones in ‘duli’ (Pyrus betulaefolia) via transcriptomic analysis of wild-type (WT) and rolB-transformed plants. The formation of root primordia occurred earlier in transgenic ‘duli’ than in the WT plants. At seven days, 57% of the transgenic seedlings had formed root primordia, whereas root primordia first appeared at seven days in WT ‘duli’. The rooting rate of transgenic ‘duli’ and WT plants was 90% and 77.14%, respectively. rolB significantly promoted the formation of secondary roots. Within 20 days, auxin (IAA), gibberellic acid (GA3), and zeatin riboside (ZR) were higher and abscisic acid (ABA) was lower in transgenic ‘duli’ than in WT plants. Gene Ontology analysis revealed high enrichment in signaling pathways and ADP binding, and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis indicated that several differentially expressed genes were enriched in flavonoid and carotenoid-related pathways and plant hormone signal transduction. rolB induced changes in the expression patterns of several genes involved in hormone biosynthesis, metabolism, and signal transduction pathways in ‘duli’. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis identified the DEGs associated with endogenous hormone levels and indicated that the central genes of modules most strongly correlated with ABA, ZR, IAA, and GA3 regulate protein synthesis, signaling, and root tissue meristem activity. Protein–protein interaction analysis yielded a co-expression network of physiological and transcriptomic data during rooting and identified key genes at the network core. These findings provide valuable insights into the regulatory mechanisms of rolB and its influence on root development in ‘duli’. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Synergistic Regulation of Plant Growth by Plant Hormones and Nutrients)
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Article
Time-Course Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Dynamic Nitrogen Response Mechanisms and Key Regulatory Networks in Sugarcane
by Wanru Wang, Lijun Zhang, Shuai Liu, Meiyan Chen and Xiping Yang
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2164; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092164 - 10 Sep 2025
Viewed by 172
Abstract
Nitrogen is an essential mineral nutrient for plant growth and development. However, the molecular response mechanisms of sugarcane under varying nitrogen regimes remain unclear. This study investigated the dynamic responses of sugarcane (GT42) leaves to nitrogen treatment using hydroponic systems. Leaf samples were [...] Read more.
Nitrogen is an essential mineral nutrient for plant growth and development. However, the molecular response mechanisms of sugarcane under varying nitrogen regimes remain unclear. This study investigated the dynamic responses of sugarcane (GT42) leaves to nitrogen treatment using hydroponic systems. Leaf samples were collected under low nitrogen (LN, 0.2 mM NH4NO3) and normal nitrogen (NN, 2 mM NH4NO3) treatments at 1, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h, as well as under high nitrogen (HN, 6 mM NH4NO3) treatment at 3, 6, and 24 h. RNA-Seq analysis identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between LN/NN and HN/NN treatments at corresponding time points. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis of DEGs from both LN/NN and HN/NN comparisons revealed significant enrichment in nitrogen metabolism and zeatin biosynthesis pathways. These findings aligned with our Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) results from LN-treated samples. Through detailed reconstruction of the nitrogen metabolic pathway and zeatin biosynthesis co-expression networks, we established their pivotal regulatory roles in sugarcane’s adaptation to varying nitrogen availability. Our results demonstrate a dynamic, concentration-dependent regulatory network in sugarcane leaves under nitrogen treatment. These findings provide potential targets for improving nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) in sugarcane breeding programs. The study offers new insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying sugarcane’s response to nitrogen fluctuations, with implications for developing nitrogen-efficient cultivars. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Genetic Research and Breeding of Sugar Crops)
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