Agronomy

18 pages, 834 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Moringa Accessions Performance for Adaptability, Growth and Leaf Yield Under the Subtropical Climate of Pretoria, South Africa

by Addisu Zeru, Abubeker Hassen, Francuois Muller, Julius Tjelele and Michael Bairu

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2414; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102414 - 17 Oct 2025

Abstract

Despite the extensive cultivation of Moringa trees in tropical regions, understanding of accession-specific performance across diverse agroecological zones remains inadequate. Thus, this study evaluated the growth, adaptability, and leaf yield performance of 12 Moringa accessions (11 M. oleifera and 1 M. stenopetala) [...] Read more.

Despite the extensive cultivation of Moringa trees in tropical regions, understanding of accession-specific performance across diverse agroecological zones remains inadequate. Thus, this study evaluated the growth, adaptability, and leaf yield performance of 12 Moringa accessions (11 M. oleifera and 1 M. stenopetala) over three years in a subtropical climate (Pretoria, South Africa). Seeds were planted in seedling trays in the glasshouse at the University of Pretoria’s experimental farm. Vigorous seedlings were transplanted to the field at the Roodeplaat experimental site of the Agricultural Research Council two months after establishment, following a randomized complete block design (RCBD). Data were measured on establishment (emergence, survival), growth and yield parameters, and monitored plant health via leaf greenness, vigour, chlorosis, and pest and disease incidence. Accessions exhibited substantial variation for most traits, except for stem diameter. Moringa stenopetala showed the highest initial emergence rate but later displayed lower survival rates than most M. oleifera accessions. Survival rates, morphological features (plant height, canopy diameter, and branching), visual scores for leaf greenness and plant vigour, and leaf yield (fresh and dry) varied considerably among the accessions. Moringa oleifera A2 consistently performed well, exhibiting vigorous growth, the maximum survival rate (78%), and fresh leaf production (6206 kg ha⁻¹). Accessions A3 and A8 showed intermediate yield and longevity, indicating potential for cultivation or breeding. Conversely, M. oleifera A10 and M. stenopetala markedly underperformed in most traits, limiting their cultivation potential. Based on multi-year performance, A2 is suggested for large-scale cultivation due to its vigour, yield, and stress tolerance, while A3 and A8 hold breeding potential. The study emphasizes the critical role of genetic variation and selection in enhancing Moringa productivity under subtropical environments. Future work should focus on genetic characterization and agronomic practices optimization of superior accessions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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16 pages, 2490 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Distribution and Temporal Evolution of Soil Salinization in the Oasis Irrigated Area

by Tingbo Lv, Yifan Liu, Menghan Bian, Xiaoying Zhang, Conghao Chen and Maoyuan Wang

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2413; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102413 - 17 Oct 2025

Abstract

Salinization of irrigation areas is a key environmental challenge faced by arid and semi-arid regions worldwide, and the complexity of natural environment and human activities increases the uncertainty of salinization distribution. This study takes the Xiaohaizi Irrigation Area in Kashgar, Xinjiang as the [...] Read more.

Salinization of irrigation areas is a key environmental challenge faced by arid and semi-arid regions worldwide, and the complexity of natural environment and human activities increases the uncertainty of salinization distribution. This study takes the Xiaohaizi Irrigation Area in Kashgar, Xinjiang as the research location. Soil samples were collected before sowing and after harvesting in 2023 and analyzed. Using geostatistics and digital soil mapping techniques, the spatial distribution and temporal evolution of soil salinization in the region were finely characterized. The results showed that the soil salinization in Xiaohaizi Irrigation District was moderate to high, with mean salt contents of 8.29 g/kg in the 0–30 cm layer, 6.16 g/kg at 30–60 cm, and 4.80 g/kg at 60–100 cm before sowing, all indicating moderate to high salinity levels. The salt content showed a surface aggregation distribution with significant differences between different depths. The main ions that affect salinization are SO₄²⁻, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Cl⁻, K⁺, and Na⁺. The 0–30 cm soil layer is mainly composed of mildly saline soil, and the degree of soil salinization decreases with the depth of the soil layer. After harvesting, the overall degree of salinization in the irrigation area intensified, and the spatial distribution of salinization was uneven. The degree of salinization was higher in the northwest and lower in the south. The impact of human activities on surface soil salinization is greater than that on deep soil. The areas where the degree of salinization in the 0–30, 30–60, and 60–100 cm soil layers undergoes transformation account for 57.18%, 33.15%, and 26.9%, respectively. This study reveals the complex dynamics of soil salinization in the Xiaohaizi irrigation area, providing scientific support for soil management and irrigation strategies in the region, and is of great significance for achieving sustainable development of oasis agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Irrigation)

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17 pages, 5543 KB

Open AccessArticle

Humic Acid Enhances the Soil Amelioration Effect of Biochar on Saline–Alkali Soils in Cotton Fields

by Xiao Wang, Jianli Ding, Jinjie Wang, Lijing Han, Jiao Tan, Jingming Liu and Xiangyu Ge

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2412; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102412 - 17 Oct 2025

Abstract

To address the severe challenge of soil salinization, effective soil amelioration methods are urgently needed; however, current research on the microbial mechanisms of the combined application of multiple amendments is insufficient. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the impacts of biochar combined with [...] Read more.

To address the severe challenge of soil salinization, effective soil amelioration methods are urgently needed; however, current research on the microbial mechanisms of the combined application of multiple amendments is insufficient. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the impacts of biochar combined with humic acid (HA) on the physicochemical properties and microbial community structure of saline–alkali soils by a field experiment. The results showed that the co-application treatments significantly improved soil physicochemical properties and increased bacterial community richness; specific effects depended on the biochar feedstock. Notably, the H-MBC treatment was the most effective in reducing soil electrical conductivity (EC) by 44.1%, while the H-SBC treatment most significantly increased soil water content by 80.3%. Stochastic processes influenced the assembly of microbial communities, particularly the co-application group, forming a more complex and stable microbial network. Furthermore, Spearman correlation and random forest analyses revealed EC, nitrate nitrogen, and available phosphorus as the primary variables affecting microbial communities. These findings support the potential of the combined application of biochar and HA for saline–alkali soil amelioration, as this strategy mitigates salt stress and increases nutrient availability, thereby reshaping microbial communities toward states conducive to ecological restoration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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13 pages, 525 KB

Open AccessReview

Weed Resistance to Herbicides in Mexico: A Review

by José Alfredo Domínguez-Valenzuela, Candelario Palma-Bautista, Román Eleazar Ruiz-Romero, José G. Vázquez-García, Juan Carlos Delgado-Castillo, Hugo E. Cruz-Hipólito, Ricardo Alcántara-de la Cruz, Rafael De Prado and Guido Plaza

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2411; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102411 - 17 Oct 2025

Abstract

Herbicide resistance in weeds has become a critical challenge in worldwide and Mexican agriculture. Many of these cases involve single, cross and multiple resistance to herbicides that inhibit Acetyl CoA Carboxylase (ACCase), Acetolactate Synthase (ALS), Hydroxyphenyl Pyruvate Dioxygenase (HPPD), and Enolpyruvyl Shikimate Phosphate [...] Read more.

Herbicide resistance in weeds has become a critical challenge in worldwide and Mexican agriculture. Many of these cases involve single, cross and multiple resistance to herbicides that inhibit Acetyl CoA Carboxylase (ACCase), Acetolactate Synthase (ALS), Hydroxyphenyl Pyruvate Dioxygenase (HPPD), and Enolpyruvyl Shikimate Phosphate Synthase (EPSPS) enzymes, as well as auxin mimic herbicides. Documented resistance mechanisms include both target-site resistance (TSR) mutations and various forms of non-target-site resistance (NTSR). In wheat and barley, biotypes with resistance to ACCase, ALS, EPSPS and auxins have been confirmed. Maize–sorghum systems show resistance to ACCase, ALS and EPSPS, and in cotton there are glyphosate-resistant populations of Amaranthus palmeri. Citrus orchards remain the focus of glyphosate resistance. Of concern is the advance of multiple resistance in cereals, exemplified by Avena fatua (ACCase + ALS) and Brassica rapa (EPSPS + ALS + auxin mimics). Unique cases, such as EPSPS resistance in Leptochloa virgata and Bidens pilosa and to HPPD in Setaria adhaerens, are unique to Mexico. These resistance patterns underline the need for robust monitoring and detailed study of molecular and physiological mechanisms, where this has not been done, to inform integrated weed management strategies and curb the spread of weeds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Management and Sustainability of Herbicide Resistance in Crops)

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20 pages, 5442 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Identification of the ANP Gene Family in Banana (Musa spp.) and Analysis of MaNPK1 Response to Drought Stress Induced by Piriformospora indica

by Tong Lin, Wanlong Wu, Xu Feng, Jinbing Xie, Zhongxiong Lai, Lixiang Miao and Yuji Huang

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2410; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102410 - 17 Oct 2025

Abstract

Banana is a globally important food crop. As a large herbaceous plant with a shallow root system, its yield is highly susceptible to drought stress. ANP family genes play crucial roles in plant drought resistance. However, the ANP gene family has not been [...] Read more.

Banana is a globally important food crop. As a large herbaceous plant with a shallow root system, its yield is highly susceptible to drought stress. ANP family genes play crucial roles in plant drought resistance. However, the ANP gene family has not been systematically studied in bananas, and how Piriformospora indica (P. indica) induces its expression remains unclear. A comprehensive identification of the ANP family is thus a necessary foundation for functional studies. In this study, we systematically identified 13 ANP family members in banana for the first time through genome-wide analysis. Using bioinformatics, RT-qPCR and subcellular localization techniques, we characterized their structural features, phylogenetic relationships, and the expression patterns of MaNPK1 under drought stress and P. indica colonization. The results revealed that banana ANP family members are highly evolutionarily conserved. MaNPK1-1 was specifically induced and upregulated by P. indica under drought conditions and subcellular localization showed that it played a role in the nucleus. This research provides theoretical insights into the function of the banana ANP family and its regulatory role in the P. indica mediated drought stress response, offering potential applications for breeding stress resistant banana varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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19 pages, 5686 KB

Open AccessArticle

RipenessGAN: Growth Day Embedding-Enhanced GAN for Stage-Wise Jujube Ripeness Data Generation

by Jeon-Seong Kang, Junwon Yoon, Beom-Joon Park, Junyoung Kim, Sung Chul Jee, Ha-Yoon Song and Hyun-Joon Chung

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2409; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102409 - 17 Oct 2025

Abstract

RipenessGAN is a novel Generative Adversarial Network (GAN) designed to generate synthetic images across different ripeness stages of jujubes (green fruit, white ripe fruit, semi-red fruit, and fully red fruit), aiming to provide balanced training data for diverse applications beyond classification accuracy. This [...] Read more.

RipenessGAN is a novel Generative Adversarial Network (GAN) designed to generate synthetic images across different ripeness stages of jujubes (green fruit, white ripe fruit, semi-red fruit, and fully red fruit), aiming to provide balanced training data for diverse applications beyond classification accuracy. This study addresses the problem of data imbalance by augmenting each ripeness stage using our proposed Growth Day Embedding mechanism, thereby enhancing the performance of downstream classification models. The core innovation of RipenessGAN lies in its ability to capture continuous temporal transitions among discrete ripeness classes by incorporating fine-grained growth day information (0–56 days) in addition to traditional class labels. The experimental results show that RipenessGAN produces synthetic data with higher visual quality and greater diversity compared to CycleGAN. Furthermore, the classification models trained on the enriched dataset exhibit more consistent and accurate performance. We also conducted comprehensive comparisons of RipenessGAN against CycleGAN and class-conditional diffusion models (DDPM) under strictly controlled and fair experimental settings, carefully matching model architectures, computational resources, training conditions, and evaluation metrics. The results indicate that although diffusion models yield highly realistic images and CycleGAN ensures stable cycle-consistent generation, RipenessGAN provides superior practical benefits in training efficiency, temporal controllability, and adaptability for agricultural applications. This research demonstrates the potential of RipenessGAN to mitigate data imbalance in agriculture and highlights its scalability to other crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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17 pages, 988 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study of the Effects of Co-Application of Biochar and Biogas Slurry on Nitrogen Cycling Enzyme Activity and Nitrogen Use Efficiency

by Tianxiu Xu, Zewen Jin and Lifeng Ping

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2408; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102408 - 16 Oct 2025

Abstract

This study investigated the effects of combined biochar and biogas slurry application on Acrisols in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province. Biochar was applied at 0–2% (C0–C3) with or without slurry substitution (B0, B1) to evaluate changes in soil properties, nitrogen-cycle-related enzymes, and functional genes. The [...] Read more.

This study investigated the effects of combined biochar and biogas slurry application on Acrisols in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province. Biochar was applied at 0–2% (C0–C3) with or without slurry substitution (B0, B1) to evaluate changes in soil properties, nitrogen-cycle-related enzymes, and functional genes. The joint amendment significantly increased soil pH, reduced bulk density, and enhanced total nitrogen, with the C3B1 treatment showing marked improvements in ammonium, nitrate, and total nitrogen compared with sole chemical fertilization (p < 0.05). Co-application also suppressed ammonia volatilization and N₂O emissions, while stimulating nitrate reductase, nitrite reductase, urease activities, and gene abundances. Regression analysis identified nitrate reductase as the primary driver of nitrogen use efficiency, and correlation analysis indicated that ammonium and total nitrogen were strongly associated with enzyme activities. Overall, biochar–slurry integration improved soil fertility and nitrogen utilization while mitigating nitrogen losses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)

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20 pages, 5981 KB

Open AccessArticle

Field Evaluations of Two Citrus Interspecific Hybrid Populations Using Desert Lime (Citrus glauca (Lindl.) Burkill) Identify Presumed Resistance and Tolerance to Huanglongbing

by Maria B. Besilla-Renteria, Vicente J. Febres and Jose X. Chaparro

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2407; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102407 - 16 Oct 2025

Abstract

Huanglongbing (HLB), associated with the bacterial pathogen Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (CLas), is one of the most destructive diseases affecting citrus. Although some citrus cultivars are tolerant of the disease, no commercially resistant varieties exist to date. Resistance, however, has been identified [...] Read more.

Huanglongbing (HLB), associated with the bacterial pathogen Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (CLas), is one of the most destructive diseases affecting citrus. Although some citrus cultivars are tolerant of the disease, no commercially resistant varieties exist to date. Resistance, however, has been identified in the sexually compatible distant relative, the Australian desert lime (C. glauca) and its F₁ hybrids. In an effort to develop commercial varieties with resistance to HLB, we produced interspecific hybrid populations between an HLB-resistant C. glauca × C. maxima F₁ hybrid and two mandarins (C. reticulata). The progenies were evaluated under natural CLas infection conditions in Florida for infection status, disease symptom severity, and growth to determine whether resistance or tolerance was manifested. After four years of evaluations, using two cluster analyses (K-means and hierarchical cluster), three groups were identified: (1) progeny that was uninfected, had very low infection levels or recovered from infection, and also had low defoliation and above average growth, (2) progeny that was infected and showed high defoliation and below average growth, and (3) progeny that was infected with generally high titters, low defoliation and above average growth. Overall, these results indicate the interspecific hybrid progeny in the field segregated into apparent resistant, susceptible and tolerant trees. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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25 pages, 1473 KB

Open AccessArticle

Leaf Spot Disease Caused by Several Pathogenic Species of the Pleosporaceae Family on Agave salmiana and Agave lechuguilla Plants in Mexico, and Their Biocontrol Using the Indigenous Trichoderma asperellum Strain JEAB02

by José Esteban Aparicio-Burgos, Teresa Romero-Cortes, María Magdalena Armendáriz-Ontiveros and Jaime Alioscha Cuervo-Parra

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2406; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102406 - 16 Oct 2025

Abstract

The genus Agave (family Asparagaceae) represents the second-most important group of plants in Mexico. Several fungal species have been identified as causal agents of leaf spot disease affecting Agave salmiana and A. lechuguilla, producing necrotic lesions that compromise plant health and productivity. [...] Read more.

The genus Agave (family Asparagaceae) represents the second-most important group of plants in Mexico. Several fungal species have been identified as causal agents of leaf spot disease affecting Agave salmiana and A. lechuguilla, producing necrotic lesions that compromise plant health and productivity. Pathogenicity experiments were conducted under greenhouse conditions, field tests were performed, and in vitro antagonism using Trichoderma asperellum strain JEAB02 against selected pathogenic isolates was evaluated. Phylogenetic analysis of genomic DNA fragments allowed the identification of 26 fungal isolates belonging to Curvularia lunata, C. verruculosa, Bipolaris zeae, Alternaria alternata, Fusarium lactis, Epicoccum sorghinum, Myrmaecium rubricosum, Penicillium diversum, and Aspergillus oryzae. In pathogenicity assays under greenhouse conditions on A. salmiana and A. lechuguilla, treatments T5–T12 exhibited statistically similar levels of disease severity (33.10–37.29%), caused mainly by C. verruculosa, A. alternata, B. zeae, and F. lactis. In field tests, Agave plants inoculated with the selected pathogenic fungi (T4, T5, T7, T8, T10, and T11) showed 21.07–36.73% leaf damage after 75 days. The antagonistic effect of T. asperellum JEAB02 caused complete (100%) growth inhibition of the pathogenic isolate JCPN27 and inhibition levels from 99.81 to 99.98% for isolates JCPN18, JCPN24, JCPN28, JCPN29, JCPN31, and JCPN33, demonstrating its high potential as a biological control agent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

21 pages, 1391 KB

Open AccessArticle

Water and Nitrogen Management Drive Soil Nutrient Dynamics and Microbial–Enzyme Activity in Silage Maize Systems in Northwest China

by Niu Zhu, Jianfang Wang, Weiwei Ma, Yu Zhang, Chunyu Li, Wanpeng He and Guang Li

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2405; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102405 - 16 Oct 2025

Abstract

Efficient water and nitrogen management is essential for maintaining soil fertility and achieving sustainable agricultural production, especially in arid oasis regions where soil degradation and nutrient loss are common challenges. However, the interactions between irrigation regimes, nitrogen application, and soil biological processes in [...] Read more.

Efficient water and nitrogen management is essential for maintaining soil fertility and achieving sustainable agricultural production, especially in arid oasis regions where soil degradation and nutrient loss are common challenges. However, the interactions between irrigation regimes, nitrogen application, and soil biological processes in such environments remain insufficiently understood. This study investigated the effects of water and nitrogen management on the sustainability of sandy soil nutrients within the context of the sustainable development goals during silage maize cultivation in the oasis irrigation area of the Hexi Corridor, Northwest China. Four irrigation regimes and five nitrogen management regimes were tested. The results indicate that ammonium nitrogen (NH₄⁺-N) varied significantly during the jointing stage (W4 treatment), ranging from 3.52 to 16.38 mg/kg (p < 0.05). Nitrate nitrogen (NO₃⁻-N) exhibited significant differences during the tasseling stage (W1 treatment), with a range of 6.16–21.58 mg/kg (p < 0.05). Soil total phosphorus (STP) gradually declined from early to late growth stages, ranging from 0.20 to 0.97 g/kg. Regarding enzyme activity, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) increased progressively throughout the growth period, with a range of 0.02–0.14 mg/g/d, while urease (URE) showed a declining trend, ranging from 0.25 to 0.66 mg/g/d. Water management exerted a significant negative effect on soil enzyme activity (p < 0.05), while nitrogen fertilization had a minimal impact on soil microbial communities (p > 0.05). Growth stage and irrigation regime are key regulators of the soil–microbe–enzyme activity system. The crop’s nutrient demand cycles and microbially mediated nutrient transformations exhibited strong dependence on growth stage. Enzyme activity is notably and positively affected by nitrogen inputs and plant developmental stages, while microbial biomass is mainly regulated by soil C, N, and P contents and enzyme activities. These findings provide a scientific basis for implementing water-saving irrigation and high-efficiency fertilization strategies in oasis agricultural systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Irrigation or Drainage on Soil Environment and Crop Growth)

14 pages, 471 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Food Legumes Pest and Disease Control in China: Evidence Using a Provincial-Level Dataset

by Huijie Zhang, Guodong Yin, Yuhua He, Yujiao Liu, Hongmei Luo, Jijun Zhang, Bin Zhou, Zhenxing Liu, Xiaoyan Zhang, Xu Zhu, Yang Shao, Rongfang Lian, Chao Xiang, Yunshan Wei, Xuejun Wang, Xingxing Yuan, Zhendong Zhu, Xin Chen and Changyi Jiang

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2404; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102404 - 16 Oct 2025

Abstract

Food legumes play a pivotal role in China’s food security, nutritional health, and green development strategies due to their unique advantages. This paper presents an empirical study on the economic evaluation of scientific research on pest and disease control for food legumes. Using [...] Read more.

Food legumes play a pivotal role in China’s food security, nutritional health, and green development strategies due to their unique advantages. This paper presents an empirical study on the economic evaluation of scientific research on pest and disease control for food legumes. Using panel data from 31 Chinese provinces from 2008 to 2023, we employ a Double Machine Learning (DML) approach to identify the impact of investment in plant protection research on food legume outputs. The results indicate a steady increase in China’s investment in this field, with an average annual growth rate of 5.19% from 2008 to 2023, and the total investment in 2023 was 2.14 times that of 2008. Investment in plant protection research effectively mitigates output losses and leads to significant production increases. Specifically, a 1% increase in research investment corresponds to a 0.2% increase in food legume output. This effect remains robust across various algorithms, time windows, and control variable settings. Based on these findings, we recommend: (1) increasing financial support and talent acquisition for research on food legume pests and diseases to enhance the stability and sustainability of research investment; (2) strengthening cooperation mechanisms between research institutions and enterprises to leverage their respective strengths and promote the commercialization of research outcomes and regional variety extension; (3) establishing a diversified research investment system that explores a co-construction model guided by the government, involving enterprises, and utilizing public–private partnerships to reconcile the conflict between long research cycles and market demands; (4) fostering a dual-track linkage between regional technological innovation and enterprise product commercialization to improve the efficiency of technology transfer and application; and (5) strengthening R&D in cutting-edge fields like Artificial Intelligence to improve the efficiency and precision of pest and disease control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cultivar Development of Pulses Crop—2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 4106 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Different Organic Fertilizer Gradients on Soil Nematodes and Physicochemical Properties in Subalpine Meadows of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

by Rong Dai, Suxing Liu, Zhengwen Wang, Xiayan Zhou, Yajun Bai, Guoli Yin and Wenxia Cao

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2403; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102403 - 16 Oct 2025

Abstract

Grassland degradation stems from disordered energy flow and material cycling caused by heavy grazing pressure. Fertilization is an effective measure to restore degraded grasslands. However, the mechanisms through which organic fertilizers influence soil nematode communities remain poorly understood. The objective of this study [...] Read more.

Grassland degradation stems from disordered energy flow and material cycling caused by heavy grazing pressure. Fertilization is an effective measure to restore degraded grasslands. However, the mechanisms through which organic fertilizers influence soil nematode communities remain poorly understood. The objective of this study was to explore the correlation between soil nematode community structure and key environmental variables, and to identify the optimal local fertilization rates. This study was conducted in subalpine meadows located in the southeastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, where organic fertilizer was applied for two consecutive years. The type of organic fertilizer is fully decomposed sheep manure. A total of seven treatments were established, including a no-fertilizer control group (CK) and six organic-fertilizer-application gradient groups (O1 to O6). The application rates of organic fertilizer for the gradient groups were as follows: 2250 kg·ha⁻¹, 3750 kg·ha⁻¹, 5250 kg·ha⁻¹, 6650 kg·ha⁻¹, 8250 kg·ha⁻¹, and 9750 kg·ha⁻¹, respectively. The results demonstrated that organic fertilizer significantly improved soil fertility and increased the relative abundance of phytophagous nematodes. In the soil nematode community, Aporcelaimellus, Criconemoides and Acrobeles were the dominant genera. Key environmental factors, including alkaline nitrogen (AN), soil bulk density (BD), soil pH (pH), and aboveground biomass (AGB), were identified as the primary drivers of changes in nematode community structure across different trophic types. The results of the principal component analysis (PCA) showed that O4 (6750 kg·ha⁻¹, corresponding to 135 kg·ha⁻¹ nitrogen and 67.5 kg·ha⁻¹ phosphorus) was the ideal fertilizer rate for the region. This approach aimed to provide a scientific foundation for the enhanced restoration of degraded subalpine meadows. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Grassland and Pasture Science)

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18 pages, 8993 KB

Open AccessArticle

Identification, Classification, and Evolutionary Profile of the NPF Gene Family in Sorghum bicolor

by Zicong Liang, Zhiyang Jiang, Dongyang Li, Silu Zhang, Sitong Liu, Yue Liu, Shuai Shi and Chang Liu

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2402; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102402 - 16 Oct 2025

Abstract

Nitrate transporter 1/peptide transporter family (NPF) proteins play pivotal roles in nitrogen uptake, translocation, and stress adaptation in plants. To comprehensively investigate this gene family in sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), we conducted the genome-wide identification and characterization of SbNPF genes. A total [...] Read more.

Nitrate transporter 1/peptide transporter family (NPF) proteins play pivotal roles in nitrogen uptake, translocation, and stress adaptation in plants. To comprehensively investigate this gene family in sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), we conducted the genome-wide identification and characterization of SbNPF genes. A total of 88 SbNPF members were identified and classified into eight subfamilies based on phylogenetic analysis, displaying diverse gene structures, conserved motifs, and evolutionary relationships. Gene duplication analysis revealed that tandem duplication was the primary driver of SbNPF family expansion, with most duplicated pairs undergoing purifying selection. Synteny analysis showed extensive collinearity between sorghum and rice, but limited conservation with Arabidopsis, highlighting the evolutionary divergence between monocots and dicots. Cis-regulatory element prediction suggested that SbNPF genes are widely involved in abiotic stress responses, hormone signaling, and light responsiveness. Expression profiling using RNA-seq data revealed distinct tissue-specific expression patterns, indicating functional specialization across roots, stems, leaves, and reproductive tissues. Furthermore, RT-qPCR analysis under low-nitrogen (LN) conditions demonstrated that several SbNPF genes, including SbNPF1.1, SbNPF2.6, SbNPF2.7, and SbNPF4.5, were significantly upregulated in shoots, whereas SbNPF1.2, SbNPF2.7, and SbNPF3.1 were downregulated in roots, suggesting differential regulatory roles in nitrogen acquisition and utilization under nutrient-limiting environments. Collectively, these findings provide novel insights into the evolutionary dynamics and potential functions of the SbNPF gene family and establish a foundation for future functional studies and molecular breeding aimed at improving nitrogen use efficiency in sorghum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)

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21 pages, 1128 KB

Open AccessArticle

Economic Effects of Sustainable Weed Management Against Broomrape Parasitism in Industrial Tomato

by Efstratios Michalis, Athanasios Ragkos, Ilias Travlos, Dimosthenis Chachalis and Chrysovalantis Malesios

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2401; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102401 - 16 Oct 2025

Abstract

Sustainable Weed Management Practices (SWMPs) are currently underrepresented in European cropping systems despite considerable attention from the research and policymaking communities. In public discourse, their adoption is associated with low yields, high initial investment costs, additional machinery requirements, elevated labor demands and limited [...] Read more.

Sustainable Weed Management Practices (SWMPs) are currently underrepresented in European cropping systems despite considerable attention from the research and policymaking communities. In public discourse, their adoption is associated with low yields, high initial investment costs, additional machinery requirements, elevated labor demands and limited or uncertain profitability. Nevertheless, little is known regarding their economic effects when implemented under real-life conditions at the farm level. This study aims to determine the impact of SWMPs against broomrape parasitism on the organization, management and economic performance of industrial tomato farms, considering that broomrapes (Orobanche and Phelipanche species) are a major impediment to the expansion of key crops in the Mediterranean basin due to their resistance toward commonly applied herbicides. For the purpose of economic appraisal, detailed technical and economic data were collected in 2022 from 76 arable farms cultivating industrial tomato in the Region of Thessaly in Central Greece. By combining Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with Two-Step Cluster Analysis (TSCA), a farm typology according to the implementation level of different SWMPs was developed. Based on this typology, a comparative technical and economic analysis revealed important differences in terms of structure, resource utilization and economic performance across the various farm types. “Holistic” farms, which exhibited the highest adoption levels of SWMPs, implemented an effective broomrape management strategy and achieved superior economic outcomes, evidenced by a remarkable net profit of 488.5 €/ha. Conversely, this was either negative or nearly negligible in farm types characterized by low adoption rates, indicating a lack of economic viability in the long run. The findings of this study offer useful recommendations for farm-level decision making, advisory support and policy design toward the promotion of SWMPs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Weed Science and Weed Management)

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22 pages, 997 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rethinking Efficiency: How Increased Electricity Use Can Reduce Environmental Impacts in Controlled Hemp Cultivation—A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Study

by Adéla Kalkušová, Jaroslav Neumann, Nina Veselovská, Eliška Kůrková, Petr Konvalina, Reinhard W. Neugschwandtner and Jaroslav Bernas

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2400; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102400 - 16 Oct 2025

Abstract

This study aims to assess the environmental profile and identify environmental hotspots of indoor hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) cultivation through environmental impact analysis under four scenarios combining two nutrient solutions and two lighting intensities (540 W and 900 W). Indoor cultivation of [...] Read more.

This study aims to assess the environmental profile and identify environmental hotspots of indoor hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) cultivation through environmental impact analysis under four scenarios combining two nutrient solutions and two lighting intensities (540 W and 900 W). Indoor cultivation of industrial hemp is becoming increasingly relevant as plant production shifts to controlled environments, raising the need to evaluate its environmental implications. The assessment was conducted using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology in accordance with the ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 standards, applying a cradle-to-gate system boundary and a functional unit of 1 kg of dried hemp inflorescence. Primary data were obtained from a controlled cultivation experiment, while secondary data were drawn from validated databases. The carbon footprint ranged from 1050 to 1610 kg CO₂ eq per kilogram of dried inflorescence. Scenarios with 900 W lighting showed 30–35% lower impacts per kilogram compared to 540 W variants. Electricity production and consumption were identified as major environmental hotspots, dominating most impact categories. The study concludes that improving input–output efficiency is essential for sustainable indoor cultivation and that integrating renewable energy sources, such as photovoltaics or biomass, could further reduce environmental impacts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural Systems: Enhancing Efficiency and Reducing Environmental Impact)

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13 pages, 1037 KB

Open AccessArticle

Screening of Positive Controls for Environmental Safety Assessment of RNAi Products

by Kaixuan Ding, Xiaowei Yang, Qinli Zhou, Geng Chen, Fengping Chen, Yao Tan, Jing Li and Lanzhi Han

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2399; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102399 - 16 Oct 2025

Abstract

RNA interference (RNAi) represents a promising pest control strategy, applicable to both insect-resistant genetically modified (IRGM) crops and sprayable RNAi insecticides. These products can achieve sequence-specific gene silencing and require rigorous environmental risk assessment (ERA) prior to approval. However, current environmental safety assessments [...] Read more.

RNA interference (RNAi) represents a promising pest control strategy, applicable to both insect-resistant genetically modified (IRGM) crops and sprayable RNAi insecticides. These products can achieve sequence-specific gene silencing and require rigorous environmental risk assessment (ERA) prior to approval. However, current environmental safety assessments of RNAi products and other RNAi experiments frequently use double-stranded EGFP (dsEGFP) as a negative control, while suitable RNAi-based positive controls are lacking. Sometimes conventional chemical toxins (e.g., chlorpyrifos) or protein inhibitors (e.g., trypsin inhibitors) are used as substitutes, but their distinct mechanisms, persistence, and metabolism make them inappropriate for RNAi-specific evaluations. In this study, we evaluated the suitability of RNAi-based positive controls for assessing non-target effects on Harmonia axyridis, a widely distributed predatory beetle used as a bioindicator in biosafety assessments. Under laboratory conditions, we tested one microRNA (miR-92a) and two double-stranded RNAs (dsHaSnf7 and dsHaDiap1) for their effects on H. axyridis. Injection of miR-92a showed no significant difference in mortality compared to controls, whereas dsHaSnf7 and dsHaDiap1 significantly reduced survival rates and target gene expression, as confirmed by qPCR. These findings suggest that HaSnf7 and HaDiap1 are suitable candidate genes for establishing RNAi-specific positive controls in environmental risk assessments of RNAi-based products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetically Modified (GM) Crops and Pests Management)

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16 pages, 351 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Exploratory Field Case Study of Microbial and Resistance Genes Dynamics in the Maize Phyllosphere Following Fertigation with Anaerobic Digestate

by Camila Fabiani, María V. Valero, Jessica Basualdo, Marco Allegrini, Gastón A. Iocoli, María B. Villamil and María C. Zabaloy

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2398; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102398 - 16 Oct 2025

Abstract

Anaerobic digestate from manure, a byproduct of biogas production, is increasingly used as an organic fertilizer in circular agriculture systems. This study assessed the microbiological impact of maize fertigation with anaerobic digestate, focusing on fecal indicators (Escherichia coli, Salmonella), antibiotic [...] Read more.

Anaerobic digestate from manure, a byproduct of biogas production, is increasingly used as an organic fertilizer in circular agriculture systems. This study assessed the microbiological impact of maize fertigation with anaerobic digestate, focusing on fecal indicators (Escherichia coli, Salmonella), antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), and integrons. The trial was conducted in a commercial maize field, where on-site manure-based anaerobic digestate was applied via center-pivot irrigation. Leaf samples were collected two days (2 dai) and four weeks (4 wai) after the last fertigation. E. coli and Salmonella were assessed by culturable methods, while ARGs and integrons were analyzed by qPCR. Results showed that E. coli (3 MPN/g) and Salmonella were detected at 2 dai but were undetectable at 4 wai and in the control condition, suggesting transient contamination. The abundance of tetW was approximately tenfold higher in digestate-treated plants than in the control, while no consistent changes were observed for the other genes. Overall, fertigation with anaerobic digestate appears to pose minimal microbiological impact within the specific conditions of this study, although it may act as a source of specific resistance determinants. Although limited by the use of single treated and control plots, this study offers preliminary insight into microbial and resistance gene dynamics in the phyllosphere, providing a basis for future replicated hypothesis-driven studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural Systems: Enhancing Efficiency and Reducing Environmental Impact)

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23 pages, 2444 KB

Open AccessArticle

Agronomic, Nutritional, and Sensory Characterization and Horticultural Quality of Two Jerusalem Artichoke Biotypes from Northern Argentine Patagonia

by Susana Diez, Daniela Marisol Salvatori and Lorena Franceschinis

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2397; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102397 - 15 Oct 2025

Abstract

Despite its high inulin content, Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) remains an underutilized vegetable for human consumption. Organic field trials of two biotypes adapted to Northern Patagonia, Argentina, were conducted. Since no cultivars are formally registered in the country, two biotypes, “elongated” [...] Read more.

Despite its high inulin content, Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) remains an underutilized vegetable for human consumption. Organic field trials of two biotypes adapted to Northern Patagonia, Argentina, were conducted. Since no cultivars are formally registered in the country, two biotypes, “elongated” (E) and “rounded” (R), defined according to tuber morphology, were planted and characterized. Agronomic performance was evaluated through soil analysis and crop yield. Tubers were analyzed for horticultural quality (e.g., respiration rate, inulin, firmness) and microstructure. A nutritional profile was determined, including protein, fat, dietary fiber, sugars, organic acids, minerals, phenolic content, and antioxidant capacity. Sensory evaluation (overall liking, free association, and penalty–reward analysis) was performed with 128 consumers, most of them unfamiliar with the tuber. The biotype R exhibited twice the yield and higher consumer preference, whereas E showed a higher respiration rate, a better nutritional profile, a harder texture, and lower overall liking. Initially, 76% of participants expressed willingness to incorporate it into their diet, which increased to 96.6% after they were informed of its health benefits. This multidimensional study, support the revalorization of Jerusalem artichoke and its inclusion in human diets as a fresh vegetable for biotype R or functional ingredient for biotype E. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights in Crop Management to Respond to Climate Change)

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27 pages, 4045 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Crop Water Use with Saline Aquaculture Effluent: For Succesful Production of Forage Sorghum Hybrids

by Ildikó Kolozsvári, Ágnes Kun, Mihály Jancsó, Noémi J. Valkovszki, Csaba Bozán, Norbert Túri, Árpád Székely, Andrea Palágyi, Csaba Gyuricza and Gergő Péter Kovács

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2396; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102396 - 15 Oct 2025

Abstract

Hungary faces increasing water challenges, including frequent droughts and a growing dependence on irrigation, which necessitate alternative water sources for agriculture. This study evaluated the use of saline aquaculture effluent—characterized by elevated sodium (Na⁺) and chloride (Cl⁻) concentrations—as an [...] Read more.

Hungary faces increasing water challenges, including frequent droughts and a growing dependence on irrigation, which necessitate alternative water sources for agriculture. This study evaluated the use of saline aquaculture effluent—characterized by elevated sodium (Na⁺) and chloride (Cl⁻) concentrations—as an irrigation resource for forage sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) over four consecutive growing seasons. Three hybrids (‘GK Áron’, ‘GK Balázs’, and ‘GK Erik’) were tested under five irrigation regimes, including freshwater and aquaculture effluent applied via drip irrigation at weekly doses of 30 mm and 45 mm, alongside a non-irrigated control. Effluent irrigation at 30 mm weekly increased biomass yield by up to 61% and enhanced nitrogen uptake by 22% compared to the control. Soil electrical conductivity (EC) values remained below 475 µS/cm, with effluent treatments showing lower EC than non-irrigated plots. The effluent water also supported the recycling of nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus. Unlike conventional saline water, aquaculture effluent contains organic compounds and microbial activity that may improve nutrient mobilization and uptake. Our results highlight how we can reuse aquaculture wastewater in irrigated crop production. The results demonstrate that moderate effluent irrigation (30 mm/week) can optimize crop water use while maintaining soil health, offering a viable strategy for forage sorghum production in water-limited environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Crop Water Use: Advances and Applications in Deficit Irrigation Strategies)

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16 pages, 1479 KB

Open AccessArticle

Transport of Phosphorus from Three Fertilizers Through High- and Low-Phosphorus Soils

by Lily DuPlooy, Joshua Heitman, Luke Gatiboni and Aziz Amoozegar

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2395; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102395 - 15 Oct 2025

Abstract

Chemical fertilizers are commonly used to supply phosphorus and other nutrients to crops, but due to high affinity of soils for P fixation, over-application of P fertilizer is common, which may result in groundwater and surface water pollution. To increase P use efficiency, [...] Read more.

Chemical fertilizers are commonly used to supply phosphorus and other nutrients to crops, but due to high affinity of soils for P fixation, over-application of P fertilizer is common, which may result in groundwater and surface water pollution. To increase P use efficiency, different strategies, including different fertilizer formulations and types, have been developed. Two struvite-based fertilizers, Crystal Green^® (CG) and Crystal Green Pearl^® (CGP), are touted as environmentally safe, because they are insoluble in water but soluble in organic acids exuded from crop roots. The objective of this study was to assess fate and transport of P from diammonium phosphate (DAP), CG, and CGP through two loam soils with a significant difference in their initial P content. Two loamy soils, one collected from an experimental field receiving fertilizer continuously since 1985 and one from an adjacent area receiving no fertilizer, and a pure sand control were packed in 5 cm diameter and 5 cm long columns. Several grains equivalent to approximately 80 mg P from each fertilizer were imbedded at the bottom of the column. Distilled water was passed through the soil columns from the bottom at a relatively constant rate, and the outflow was collected every two hours using a fraction collector. Outflow samples from each treatment combination were analyzed for P by the colorimetric method, and the amount of P retained by the soils along the column at the end of the water application was determined by the nitric acid digestion method. Approximately 91% of P in DAP, 34% in CG, and only 3.8% in CGP was transported through the sand column. In contrast, the amounts of P transported were approximately 42.2% for DAP, 6.4% for CG, and 0.4% for CGP through the high-P soil and 22.4% for DAP, 0.6% for CG, and almost zero for CGP through the low-P soil. Overall, the results show a high solubility and transport for DAP, very low transport for CGP, and somewhat low to medium transport for CG fertilizers. In addition, the results show that even the high-P soil that has received fertilizer for about 40 years has the capacity to fix significant amounts of P. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conventional and Alternative Fertilization of Crops)

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23 pages, 7494 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Analysis of NAC Gene Family and Its Cold-Responsive Transcriptional Dynamics in Coffea arabica

by Jing Gao, Junjie Zhu, Zenan Lan, Feifei He and Xiangshu Dong

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2394; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102394 - 15 Oct 2025

Abstract

In numerous coffee-producing areas, coffee plants are routinely exposed to a low chilling temperature on a seasonal cycle. Despite the well-established significance of NAC transcription factors in mediating plant responses to abiotic stresses, their functions in Coffea arabica remain underexplored. This study identified [...] Read more.

In numerous coffee-producing areas, coffee plants are routinely exposed to a low chilling temperature on a seasonal cycle. Despite the well-established significance of NAC transcription factors in mediating plant responses to abiotic stresses, their functions in Coffea arabica remain underexplored. This study identified 161 CaNAC genes and classified them into 15 distinct subgroups distributed across 22 chromosomes, with chromosome 11 harboring the largest number of these genes. Furthermore, a total of 1077 cis-elements were detected in the promoter regions of the 161 CaNAC genes. Among these, MYB-binding sites and ABA-responsive elements (ABREs) were the most prevalent. RNA-seq analysis under chilling stress revealed 16,767 differentially expressed genes, which were grouped into four clusters. GO enrichment analysis highlighted biological processes such as the abscisic acid-activated signaling pathway, response to cold, and response to salicylic acid, providing fundamental insights into the transcriptional response of C. arabica to chilling stress. Expression pattern analysis of CaNACs under chilling stress showed that 38 CaNACs were differentially expressed; 15 genes, including CaNAC46/49/116/125, were downregulated, while 12 genes, including CaNAC56/64, were upregulated. This study enhances our understanding of the CaNAC gene family’s role in cold responses, potentially bolstering molecular breeding programs for C. arabica. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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41 pages, 4704 KB

Open AccessReview

Integrative Genomics and Precision Breeding for Stress-Resilient Cotton: Recent Advances and Prospects

by Zahra Ghorbanzadeh, Bahman Panahi, Leila Purhang, Zhila Hossein Panahi, Mehrshad Zeinalabedini, Mohsen Mardi, Rasmieh Hamid and Mohammad Reza Ghaffari

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2393; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102393 - 15 Oct 2025

Abstract

Developing climate-resilient and high-quality cotton cultivars remains an urgent challenge, as the key target traits yield, fibre properties, and stress tolerance are highly polygenic and strongly influenced by genotype–environment interactions. Recent advances in chromosome-scale genome assemblies, pan-genomics, and haplotype-resolved resequencing have greatly enhanced [...] Read more.

Developing climate-resilient and high-quality cotton cultivars remains an urgent challenge, as the key target traits yield, fibre properties, and stress tolerance are highly polygenic and strongly influenced by genotype–environment interactions. Recent advances in chromosome-scale genome assemblies, pan-genomics, and haplotype-resolved resequencing have greatly enhanced the capacity to identify causal variants and recover non-reference alleles linked to fibre development and environmental adaptation. Parallel progress in functional genomics and precision genome editing, particularly CRISPR/Cas, base editing, and prime editing, now enables rapid, heritable modification of candidate loci across the complex tetraploid cotton genome. When integrated with high-throughput phenotyping, genomic selection, and machine learning, these approaches support predictive ideotype design rather than empirical, trial-and-error breeding. Emerging digital agriculture tools, such as digital twins that combine genomic, phenomic, and environmental data layers, allow simulation of ideotype performance and optimisation of trait combinations in silico before field validation. Speed breeding and phenomic selection further shorten generation time and increase selection intensity, bridging the gap between laboratory discovery and field deployment. However, the large-scale implementation of these technologies faces several practical constraints, including high infrastructural costs, limited accessibility for resource-constrained breeding programmes in developing regions, and uneven regulatory acceptance of genome-edited crops. However, reliance on highly targeted genome editing may inadvertently narrow allelic diversity, underscoring the need to integrate these tools with broad germplasm resources and pangenomic insights to sustain long-term adaptability. To realise these opportunities at scale, standardised data frameworks, interoperable phenotyping systems, robust multi-omic integration, and globally harmonised, science-based regulatory pathways are essential. This review synthesises recent progress, highlights case studies in fibre, oil, and stress-resilience engineering, and outlines a roadmap for translating integrative genomics into climate-smart, high-yield cotton breeding programmes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Genomics and Omics for Future Food Security)

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40 pages, 1534 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Decision-Support Grid for Evaluating Neonicotinoid Alternatives Based on Environmental and Human Health Impact

by Michael Raimondi, Edelbis Dávila López, Laura Peeters, Wim Reybroeck, Tim Belien, Dany Bylemans, Jeroen Buysse, Benny De Cauwer and Pieter Spanoghe

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2392; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102392 - 15 Oct 2025

Abstract

The European Union’s goal to reduce pesticide risk, exemplified by restrictions on insecticides like neonicotinoids, necessitates a shift from single-substance risk assessment to a holistic evaluation of pest control strategies. To address this, a novel decision-support grid was developed that integrates 13 environmental, [...] Read more.

The European Union’s goal to reduce pesticide risk, exemplified by restrictions on insecticides like neonicotinoids, necessitates a shift from single-substance risk assessment to a holistic evaluation of pest control strategies. To address this, a novel decision-support grid was developed that integrates 13 environmental, biodiversity, and human health risk indicators for multiple active substances across an entire crop season into a single Final Scenario Score (FSS), ranging from 0 to 1 (where 1 is the risk of the reference scenario). This framework was applied to three case studies in Belgium—sugar beet, apple, and pear cultivation—where neonicotinoid-based reference scenarios were compared with chemical and/or organic alternatives under low (best-case) and high (worst-case) pest pressure conditions. The results highlight the complexity of finding viable alternatives, with an FSS below 0.75 as the justification threshold. In sugar beet, only the best-case chemical alternative (FSS = 0.71) met the threshold, while worst-case chemical alternatives failed due to increased risk. For apple and pear, organic alternatives consistently showed low-risk scores (FSS 0.27–0.61) but faced important efficacy gaps against key insect. Chemical alternatives in orchards were justifiable in low-pressure scenarios (FSS 0.64–0.73) but failed under high pest pressure (FSS 0.91–0.93). This novel decision-support grid proves to be a valuable tool for guiding sustainable pest control strategies for regulators and field advisors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

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16 pages, 963 KB

Open AccessArticle

Agronomic Assessment of Olive Mill Wastewater Sludge Derived Composts on Lactuca sativa and Zea mays: Fertilizing Efficiency and Potential Toxic Effect on Seed Germination and Seedling Growth

by Miguel Ángel Mira-Urios, José A. Sáez-Tovar, F. Javier Andreu-Rodríguez, Silvia Sánchez-Méndez, Luciano Orden, Lucía Valverde-Vozmediano, María Dolores Pérez-Murcia and Raúl Moral

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2391; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102391 - 15 Oct 2025

Abstract

Olive mill wastewater is a polluting residue generated from the olive oil industry and is one which constitutes an environmental concern in Mediterranean countries. Composting has been reported as a viable valorization alternative, as it reduces the volume and the phytotoxic characteristics of [...] Read more.

Olive mill wastewater is a polluting residue generated from the olive oil industry and is one which constitutes an environmental concern in Mediterranean countries. Composting has been reported as a viable valorization alternative, as it reduces the volume and the phytotoxic characteristics of OMW. In this study, several composts derived from OMW were evaluated under controlled conditions over two growing season pot experiments using Lactuca sativa as a test crop. The analysis focused on soil quality changes, crop yield, and plant development. Additionally, potential phytotoxicity was also evaluated through a direct acute toxicity plant growth test. Application of OMW composts improved soil fertility indicators, including oxidizable carbon, Kjeldahl total nitrogen, Olsen phosphorous, and plant availability. Crop yields were comparable to those obtained with other organic amendments such as vermicompost and fresh cattle manure in both growing seasons and plant development (in terms of chlorophyll content and canopy cover) was not negatively affected. Nutrient uptake (NPK) was consistent during both growing seasons, with similar nitrogen use efficiency to that achieved in other organic treatments. Regarding the potential toxic effect, the OMW composts tested enhanced seed germination when mixed with coconut fiber at weight ratios below 29.2%. No half-maximal effective concentration (EC50) values were detected, even at 100% compost concentration, while half-maximal inhibitory concentration (LC50) values ranged between 65–75%. These results indicate that OMW composts can serve as an effective short-term source of plant-available nitrogen and a medium-term source of phosphorus, without risk of finding inhibitory or phytotoxic effects on crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)

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19 pages, 5496 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Discrete Meta-Modeling and Parameter Calibration of Harvested Alfalfa Stalks

by Jianji Wang, Baolong Geng, Zhikai Yang, Jinlong Yang, Keping Zhang and Yangrong Meng

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2390; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102390 - 15 Oct 2025

Abstract

Addressing the problem of lacking accurate and reliable contact parameters and bonding parameters in the simulation of the mashing process during the harvesting of alfalfa, this study takes the stems of alfalfa at the harvesting stage as the research object. The geometric dimensions [...] Read more.

Addressing the problem of lacking accurate and reliable contact parameters and bonding parameters in the simulation of the mashing process during the harvesting of alfalfa, this study takes the stems of alfalfa at the harvesting stage as the research object. The geometric dimensions and related intrinsic parameters of the stems were measured. Using the Enhanced Discrete Element Method (EDEM) software, a multi-scale discrete element flexible bonding model of alfalfa stems was established based on region-specific parameters. The entire alfalfa stem was divided into three parts: the top, middle, and root sections. A multi-scale particle aggregation model of hollow stems was created using the Hertz-Mindlin with bonding model. The contact parameters between alfalfa stems at the harvesting stage and PU rubber were determined using a mathematical model based on quadratic polynomial fitting curves. The results showed that the shear modulus of the top, middle, and root sections of the alfalfa stems were 24.96 MPa, 29.60 MPa, and 10.48 MPa, respectively. The coefficients of restitution between the top, middle, and root sections of the alfalfa stems and PU rubber were 0.426, 0.375, and 0.386, respectively; the static friction coefficients were 0.613, 0.667, and 0.422, respectively; and the rolling friction coefficients were 0.213, 0.226, and 0.292, respectively. The relative error between the simulated and measured values of the angle of repose was less than 3%, effectively representing the mechanical characteristics of alfalfa stems at the harvesting stage bending and breaking under impact. This study aims to establish a discrete element flexible model of alfalfa stems at the harvesting stage and accurately calibrate the contact parameters with typical rubber materials, thereby addressing the lack of reliable bonding and contact parameters in existing simulations of the mashing process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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21 pages, 1489 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Waterlogging at Different Developmental Stages on Growth, Yield and Physiological Responses of Forage Maize

by Chang-Woo Min, Il-Kyu Yoon, Min-Jun Kim, Jeong-Sung Jung, Md Atikur Rahman and Byung-Hyun Lee

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2389; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102389 - 15 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Waterlogging (WL) is an abiotic stress that severely limits crop yield. However, limited research has addressed the effects of long-term WL stress at different developmental stages on the yield and physiological responses of forage maize. In this study, forage maize plants were subjected [...] Read more.

Waterlogging (WL) is an abiotic stress that severely limits crop yield. However, limited research has addressed the effects of long-term WL stress at different developmental stages on the yield and physiological responses of forage maize. In this study, forage maize plants were subjected to 14-day WL stress at the emergence (E), four-leaf (V4), eleven-leaf (V11), and tasseling (VT) stages. Plant height significantly decreased by 60% at the E stage and 48% at the V4 stage when exposed to 14-day WL. Leaf area decreased by 79% at the E stage, and the number of green leaves decreased most significantly at the VT stage. Chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) and the relative chlorophyll content index (RCI) decreased most significantly at the V4 stage. The lysigenous aerenchyma formation rate of the roots increased significantly after 14-day WL at the V4 stage, whereas the number of adventitious roots increased most significantly at the V11 stage. The hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents, which are indicative of the root oxidation state, exhibited the highest increase at the E stage. In addition, at the E and V4 stages, the expression of genes related to energy metabolism and lysigenous aerenchyma formation in the roots was upregulated after 14-day WL. The total dry matter (DM) of maize after harvest decreased most significantly when exposed to 14-day WL at the V4 stage, while acid detergent fiber (ADF) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) increased with the developmental stages. Consequently, total digestible nutrients (TDNs) and the relative feed value (RFV) decreased with advancing developmental stages, with the highest decrease at the VT stage. These results demonstrate that effective drainage management during the early developmental stage (V4) is more important to prevent forage maize yield loss due to prolonged WL stress, which is expected to increase in frequency due to climate change, and management during the later developmental stage (VT) is critical to prevent decreases in feed values. These findings provide valuable insights into the physiological responses of forage maize to WL stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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28 pages, 12549 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Enhanced Faster R-CNN for High-Throughput Winter Wheat Spike Monitoring to Improved Yield Prediction and Water Use Efficiency

by Donglin Wang, Longfei Shi, Yanbin Li, Binbin Zhang, Guangguang Yang and Serestina Viriri

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2388; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102388 - 14 Oct 2025

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Abstract

This study develops an innovative unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based intelligent system for winter wheat yield prediction, addressing the inefficiencies of traditional manual counting methods (with approximately 15% error rate) and enabling quantitative analysis of water–fertilizer interactions. By integrating an enhanced Faster Region-Based Convolutional [...] Read more.

This study develops an innovative unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based intelligent system for winter wheat yield prediction, addressing the inefficiencies of traditional manual counting methods (with approximately 15% error rate) and enabling quantitative analysis of water–fertilizer interactions. By integrating an enhanced Faster Region-Based Convolutional Neural Network (Faster R-CNN) architecture with multi-source data fusion and machine learning, the system significantly improves both spike detection accuracy and yield forecasting performance. Field experiments during the 2022–2023 growing season captured high-resolution multispectral imagery for varied irrigation regimes and fertilization treatments. The optimized detection model incorporates ResNet-50 as the backbone feature extraction network, with residual connections and channel attention mechanisms, achieving a mean average precision (mAP) of 91.2% (calculated at IoU threshold 0.5) and 88.72% recall while reducing computational complexity. The model outperformed YOLOv8 by a statistically significant 2.1% margin (p < 0.05). Using model-generated spike counts as input, the random forest (RF) model regressor demonstrated superior yield prediction performance (R² = 0.82, RMSE = 324.42 kg·ha⁻¹), exceeding the Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR) (R² +46%, RMSE-44.3%), Least Squares Support Vector Machine (LSSVM) (R² + 32.3%, RMSE-32.4%), Support Vector Regression (SVR) (R² + 30.2%, RMSE-29.6%), and Backpropagation (BP) Neural Network (R²+22.4%, RMSE-24.4%) models. Analysis of different water–fertilizer treatments revealed that while organic fertilizer under full irrigation (750 m³ ha⁻¹) conditions achieved maximum yield benefit (13,679.26 CNY·ha⁻¹), it showed relatively low water productivity (WP = 7.43 kg·m⁻³). Conversely, under deficit irrigation (450 m³ ha⁻¹) conditions, the 3:7 organic/inorganic fertilizer treatment achieved optimal WP (11.65 kg m⁻³) and WUE (20.16 kg∙ha⁻¹∙mm⁻¹) while increasing yield benefit by 25.46% compared to organic fertilizer alone. This research establishes an integrated technical framework for high-throughput spike monitoring and yield estimation, providing actionable insights for synergistic water–fertilizer management strategies in sustainable precision agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Irrigation)

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17 pages, 1696 KB

Open AccessArticle

Recycling Reservoir Sediments and Rice Husk for Sustainable Rice Seedling Production

by Pei-Tzu Kao and Shan-Li Wang

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2387; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102387 - 14 Oct 2025

Viewed by 103

Abstract

Amending reservoir sediments with organic matter provides a sustainable alternative to conventional rice (Oryza sativa L.) seedling substrates, simultaneously reducing dependence on agricultural soils and promoting the recycling of dredged sediments and agricultural by-products. Preliminary tests showed that adding rice husk (RH) [...] Read more.

Amending reservoir sediments with organic matter provides a sustainable alternative to conventional rice (Oryza sativa L.) seedling substrates, simultaneously reducing dependence on agricultural soils and promoting the recycling of dredged sediments and agricultural by-products. Preliminary tests showed that adding rice husk (RH) improved the porosity and water retention of the sediments while preventing surface cracking. This study further examined the effects of RH and rice husk biochar (RHB) on sediment fertility and rice seedling growth. Seedlings were grown for 15 days in a fine- or coarse-texture sediment amended with 0, 5, 10, or 20% (w/w) RH or RHB. A 10% amendment was identified as the optimal ratio for promoting seedling growth (increasing ca. 20% biomass). Nitrogen (N) availability was the primary factor influencing seedling performance, outweighing the effects of salinity and phosphorus availability. Compared with RH, RHB amendment resulted in lower substrate available N, likely due to greater losses through denitrification and ammonia volatilization, leading to reduced growth. In contrast, RH amendment maintained higher levels of available N, resulting in greater shoot biomass and higher leaf chlorophyll concentrations. Overall, amending reservoir sediments with 10% RH provides the most effective substrate formulation, offering a practical and sustainable strategy for rice seedling production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Agriculture: Waste-to-Resource Innovations in Cropping Systems)

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23 pages, 4071 KB

Open AccessArticle

Functional Characterization of Glutathione Peroxidase Genes Reveals Their Contribution to the Rapid Range Expansion of Amaranthus palmeri Under Stress Conditions

by Siting Wang, Xiaoyu Liu, Daniel Bimpong, Yun Wang, Fulian Wang, Wang Chen, Linfeng Du and Dongfang Ma

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2386; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102386 - 14 Oct 2025

Viewed by 115

Abstract

Amaranthus palmeri is an aggressive, highly invasive weed that thrives across a wide range of adverse environments worldwide; nevertheless, the mechanisms underlying its rapid expansion remain largely unstudied. Glutathione peroxidase (GPX) is a crucial enzyme within the antioxidant defense system, belonging to the [...] Read more.

Amaranthus palmeri is an aggressive, highly invasive weed that thrives across a wide range of adverse environments worldwide; nevertheless, the mechanisms underlying its rapid expansion remain largely unstudied. Glutathione peroxidase (GPX) is a crucial enzyme within the antioxidant defense system, belonging to the phylogenetic conserved family of oxidoreductases present in all living organisms. Despite its significance, the role of GPX in A. palmeri has not been reported. This study identified eight GPX genes (ApGPXs) in A. palmeri through comprehensive bioinformatics and gene expression analyses. The research examined the characteristics, evolutionary relationships, chromosomal mapping, gene structure, subcellular localization, conserved motifs, and cis-acting elements of these genes, as well as their evolutionary conserved functions in relation to Arabidopsis thaliana GPXs and RT-qPCR analysis under various stress conditions. The ApGPXs were distributed across scaffolds (2, 4, and 12) of the A. palmeri genome. Phylogenetic analysis grouped GPX genes into four subgroups, and conserved motifs were found within certain phylogenetic subgroups. We identified Actin8 as the most stable internal reference gene for A. palmeri under diverse stress conditions. Gene expression analysis revealed that ApGPXs participate in both early and late regulatory responses to oxidative stress induced by NaCl, high temperature, osmotic pressure, and glufosinate ammonium. The Arabidopsis GPX mutant (AT4G31870) exhibited a stronger flg22-induced oxidative burst than the wild type, and qPCR confirmed that AtGPXs contribute significantly to glufosinate ammonium stress responses. Evolutionary analysis found high sequence similarity between ApGPX4 and AT1G63460, as well as ApGPX3 and AT4G11600. Also, ApGPX3 and AT4G11600 shared similar expression patterns under glufosinate ammonium stress. This research presents the first gene family study in A. palmeri and provides foundational insights for future studies in this economically critical species. Our findings establish a framework for mitigating A. palmeri’s impact on crop production and exploring ApGPXs in developing herbicide- and stress-tolerant cultivars. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive Evolution in Weeds: Molecular Basis and Management)

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Open AccessArticle

Biosynthesis of Selenium Nanoparticles from Rosa rugosa Extract: Mechanisms and Applications for Sustainable Crop Protection

by Le Song, Man Liang, Yingxiu Wang and Yanli Bian

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2385; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102385 - 13 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) show great potential for sustainable agriculture, but their green synthesis and practical application still need further optimization. This study established a green synthesis method for SeNPs using lyophilized rose (Rosa rugosa Thunb.) powder as both a reducing and stabilizing [...] Read more.

Selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) show great potential for sustainable agriculture, but their green synthesis and practical application still need further optimization. This study established a green synthesis method for SeNPs using lyophilized rose (Rosa rugosa Thunb.) powder as both a reducing and stabilizing agent to reduce sodium selenite (Na₂SeO₃), key parameters, including template concentration, Na₂SeO₃/VC ratio, and reaction temperature were systematically optimized. This process yielded stable, spherical SeNPs with optimal properties, exhibiting a diameter of 90 nm and a zeta potential of −35 mV. Structural characterization confirmed that selenium forms chelation complexes through carboxyl and hydroxyl oxygen-binding sites. The SeNPs exhibited exceptional stability (retained 426 days at 25 °C) and pH tolerance (pH 4–10), though divalent cations (Ca²⁺) triggered aggregation. In agricultural application tests, 5 mg/L SeNPs increased tomato plant biomass by 84% and antioxidant capacity by 152% compared to controls, and the biosynthesis pathways of salicylic acid and jasmonic acid were upregulated. Moreover, the SeNPs exhibited strong concentration-dependent antifungal activity against several major pathogens. Among these pathogens, tomato gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) was the most sensitive, as evidenced by its low EC₅₀ (4.86 mg/L) and sustained high inhibition rates, which remained substantial even at 1 mg/L and reached 94% at 10 mg/L. These findings highlight SeNPs as a friendly alternative for minimizing agrochemical use in sustainable agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Navigating Pesticide Residues: Safeguarding Agricultural Product Quality)

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Agronomy, Volume 15, Issue 10 (October 2025) – 170 articles

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