Agronomy

20 pages, 856 KB

Open AccessArticle

Responses of Soilless-Cultivated Golden Thistle to the Total Salt and Nitrogen Concentrations in the Nutrient Solution

by Filippa Maniou, Dimitrios M. Papadimitriou, Evangelos Giannothanasis, Theodora Ntanasi, Panagiotis Kalozoumis, Thrassyvoulos Manios, Georgia Ntatsi and Dimitrios Savvas

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2287; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102287 (registering DOI) - 26 Sep 2025

Abstract

Golden thistle (Scolymus hispanicus L.) is a wild edible green of high nutritional value, used in the traditional Mediterranean diet. Nowadays, there is an increasing demand from consumers for golden thistle and concomitantly an increasing interest in integrating it into modern cultivation [...] Read more.

Golden thistle (Scolymus hispanicus L.) is a wild edible green of high nutritional value, used in the traditional Mediterranean diet. Nowadays, there is an increasing demand from consumers for golden thistle and concomitantly an increasing interest in integrating it into modern cultivation systems. Soilless culture is a promising cultivation option that can maximize yield and quality of golden thistle. The aim of this study was to examine the combined effect of electrical conductivity (EC) and nitrogen (N) supply level on growth and nutritional quality of golden thistle grown on a substrate in a soilless cropping system. The two experimental factors were examined in a 2-factorial experiment with two EC levels, a low (2.2 dS m⁻¹) and high (2.8 dS m⁻¹), combined with two total-N (NO₃⁻ + NH₄⁺) supply levels, low (13.30 mmol L⁻¹) and high (17.30 mmoL L⁻¹), in the supplied nutrient solution. Root fresh and dry weight (commercial yield) were unaffected by treatments; however, high EC significantly reduced shoot fresh and dry biomass by 21 and 28% compared to low EC. High EC increased K⁺ concentrations in shoots and roots but decreased shoot Ca²⁺ level. Nitrate concentration in the drainage solution and plant tissues was primarily driven by N supply, with high N increasing leaf NO₃⁻ by up to 45% without surpassing the regulatory safety limit. Water productivity did not differ among treatments, but low EC improved agronomic efficiency of K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, and S, while low N enhanced N agronomic efficiency by 44%. Overall, low EC promoted vegetative growth and nutrient use efficiency, while increasing N above 13.3 mmol L⁻¹ offered no yield benefit and raised tissue nitrate levels. For optimal yield and quality, a nutrient solution with low EC and N supply is recommended for the soilless cultivation of golden thistle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

25 pages, 20600 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Identification of MADS-box Family Genes and Analysis of Their Expression Patterns in the Common Oat (Avena sativa L.)

by Man Zhang, Chun-Long Wang, Yuan Jiang, Bo Feng, Hai-Xiao Dong, Hao Chen, Xue-Ying Li, Xiao-Hui Shan, Juan Tian, Wei-Wei Xu, Ya-Ping Yuan, Chang-Zhong Ren and Lai-Chun Guo

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2286; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102286 (registering DOI) - 26 Sep 2025

Abstract

The MADS-box gene family is a large family of transcription factors, and its members are widely distributed in the plant kingdom. Members of this family are well known to be crucial regulators of many biological processes and environmental responses. In this study, bioinformatics [...] Read more.

The MADS-box gene family is a large family of transcription factors, and its members are widely distributed in the plant kingdom. Members of this family are well known to be crucial regulators of many biological processes and environmental responses. In this study, bioinformatics methods were employed to analyze the MADS-box gene family members in the common oat, focusing on their phylogenetic relationships, gene structures, conserved motifs, evolutionary relationships, promoter analysis and responses to photoperiod and abiotic stress. A total of 175 MADS-box genes were detected in Avena sativa, which were categorized into Type I and Type II. Type II members exhibited more complex gene structures, while each subfamily showed similar gene structures and motifs. Evolutionary analysis identified 138 segmental duplication events and revealed strong syntenic conservation with Triticum aestivum (337 collinear gene pairs). Four categories of cis-elements were detected in the promoter regions of the AsMADS-box genes. qRT-PCR analysis revealed that the expression of six Type II AsMADS-box genes varied in response to ABA, GA, drought and salt. Furthermore, 23 AsMADS-box members were potentially associated with heading date when the common oat plants were exposed to different photoperiod conditions. The overexpression of chr4D_AsMADS95 in Arabidopsis thaliana led to early flowering under long-day and short-day photoperiod conditions, likely associated with a significant increase in the expression levels of flowering-related genes in transgenic plants. These findings will provide useful information for future studies on stress responses and increase our understanding of the network that regulates flowering in the common oat. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

23 pages, 999 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Tillage Management Alters Carbon Sink Capacity in Arid Phaeozems: Insights from a Carbon Balance Perspective

by Peizhe Yu, Mingxu Deng, Guangzhi Lin, Ming Liu, Zhongxue Zhang, Zhijuan Qi and Xin Zhou

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2285; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102285 - 26 Sep 2025

Abstract

To comprehensively explore the net carbon balance within cropland systems subject to diverse tillage practices (Down-slope cultivation (CK), Subsoiling tillage (SF), Ridge to district field (RF), Ridge to district field + subsoiling tillage (RF-S), Transverse slope planting (TP), Transverse slope planting + ridge [...] Read more.

To comprehensively explore the net carbon balance within cropland systems subject to diverse tillage practices (Down-slope cultivation (CK), Subsoiling tillage (SF), Ridge to district field (RF), Ridge to district field + subsoiling tillage (RF-S), Transverse slope planting (TP), Transverse slope planting + ridge to district field (TP-R), Transverse slope planting + subsoiling tillage (TP-S)), a series of well-designed field experiments were meticulously carried out. The CO₂ emission intensity of soil heterotrophic respiration, CH₄ emission intensity, carbon loss in runoff, carbon emissions from farmland materials, dry matter mass and carbon content of different crop organs after harvest were measured for the six different tillage practices. Moreover, the annual and seasonal variations in farmland soil carbon pools under different treatments were analyzed using the net carbon flux (NCF) of the cropland system. The results indicated that, under different tillage practices, the CO₂ emission intensity of soil heterotrophic respiration in each regime across different years generally exhibited a pattern of increasing initially and then decreasing, reaching its peak during the filling stage (pod-setting stage). The RF regime significantly reduced the CO₂ emissions from soil heterotrophic respiration (p < 0.05). The CH₄ emissions in each regime across different years also demonstrated an overall tendency of rising initially and subsequently declining, with an alternating positive–negative pattern, reaching its peak during the jointing stage (branching stage). The SF regime significantly decreased the CH₄ emissions (p < 0.05). The regimes with cross-slope tillage significantly reduced the carbon loss in runoff (p < 0.05). Throughout every year, the NPP of crops under the TP-S regime attained its peak value (p < 0.05). The RF regime effectively increased the NPP of crops, reduced the soil heterotrophic respiration CO₂ emissions and the carbon loss in runoff, and its NCF value reached the maximum level (p < 0.05), presenting a weak carbon “source”. Overall, ridged-field (RF) effectively curbs greenhouse gas emissions, boosts farmland carbon sequestration, and mitigates soil fertility decline. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

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Graphical abstract

13 pages, 831 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pre-Plant Biofumigation and Integrated Post-Plant Strategies for Management of Nacobbus aberrans and Meloidogyne incognita in Greenhouse Tomato

by Marco Antonio Magallanes-Tapia, Ignacio Cid del Prado-Vera, Howard Ferris, Cristian Nava-Díaz, Juan Manuel González-Camacho and Daniel Leobardo Ochoa-Martínez

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2284; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102284 - 26 Sep 2025

Abstract

Root-knot (Meloidogyne spp.) and false root-knot (Nacobbus aberrans) nematodes limit greenhouse tomato productivity. The effectiveness of integrating pre-plant biofumigation with post-plant chemical, biological, and botanical inputs was assessed under commercial conditions. A split-plot trial (2019) contrasted biofumigated and non-biofumigated whole [...] Read more.

Root-knot (Meloidogyne spp.) and false root-knot (Nacobbus aberrans) nematodes limit greenhouse tomato productivity. The effectiveness of integrating pre-plant biofumigation with post-plant chemical, biological, and botanical inputs was assessed under commercial conditions. A split-plot trial (2019) contrasted biofumigated and non-biofumigated whole plots (50 t ha⁻¹ of sorghum residues plus poultry and sheep manures) and 13 subplot treatments (fluopyram, Purpureocillium lilacinum, Pochonia chlamydosporia, Trichoderma viride, Tagetes erecta, and plant oil formulations). Nematodes were sampled 0, 60, and 120 days after transplanting, and the area under the nematode population curve (AUNPC), area under the root-damage curve (AURDC), and yield were analyzed. Biofumigation reduced pre-transplant N. aberrans populations by 86% and lowered the AUNPC by 39% relative to the non-biofumigated treatment; the whole-plot yields did not differ. Meloidogyne incognita remained at a very low density throughout. Among the subplot treatments, fluopyram decreased the AURDC by ≈22% and more than doubled the yield (63 vs. 26 t ha⁻¹; +142%), while the AUNPC of N. aberrans was unchanged. Biological and botanical packages reduced damage indices in some cases but did not increase the yield. No whole-plot × subplot interaction was detected for the yield. The results indicate that sorghum-based biofumigation, complemented by a low-risk nematicide at transplanting, can be embedded in integrated nematode-management programs for greenhouse tomato. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

35 pages, 18570 KB

Open AccessReview

Research Status and Trends in Universal Robotic Picking End-Effectors for Various Fruits

by Wenjie Gao, Jizhan Liu, Jie Deng, Yong Jiang and Yucheng Jin

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2283; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102283 - 26 Sep 2025

Abstract

The land used for fruit cultivation now exceeds 120 million hectares globally, with an annual yield of nearly 940 million tons. Fruit picking, the most labor-intensive task in agricultural production, is gradually shifting toward automation using intelligent robotic systems. As the component in [...] Read more.

The land used for fruit cultivation now exceeds 120 million hectares globally, with an annual yield of nearly 940 million tons. Fruit picking, the most labor-intensive task in agricultural production, is gradually shifting toward automation using intelligent robotic systems. As the component in direct contact with crops, specialized picking end-effectors perform well for certain fruits but lack adaptability to diverse fruit types and canopy structures. This limitation has constrained technological progress and slowed industrial deployment. The diversity of fruit shapes and the wide variation in damage thresholds—2–4 N for strawberries, 15–40 N for apples, and about 180 N for kiwifruit—further highlight the challenge of universal end-effector design. This review examines two major technical pathways: separation mechanisms and grasping strategies. Research has focused on how fruits are detached and how they can be securely held. Recent advances and limitations in both approaches are systematically analyzed. Most prototypes have achieved picking success rates exceeding 80%, with average cycle times reduced to 4–5 s per fruit. However, most designs remain at Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs) 3–5, with only a few reaching TRLs 6–7 in greenhouse trials. A dedicated section also discusses advanced technologies, including tactile sensing, smart materials, and artificial intelligence, which are driving the next generation of picking end-effectors. Finally, challenges and future trends for highly universal agricultural end-effectors are summarized. Humanoid picking hands represent an important direction for the development of universal picking end-effectors. The insights from this review are expected to accelerate the industrialization and large-scale adoption of robotic picking systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence and Human–Computer Interactions in Agricultural Production)

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15 pages, 1103 KB

Open AccessArticle

Water Footprint and Evapotranspiration Partitioning in Drip-Irrigated Faba Bean: Effects of Irrigation Regime and Planting Pattern

by Saad E. Aldulaimy, Huthaifa J. Mohammed, Basem Aljoumani and Adil K. Salman

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2282; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102282 - 26 Sep 2025

Abstract

Efficient water management is critical for sustainable crop production in arid and semi-arid regions. This study investigated the effects of two irrigation regimes—25% and 50% Management Allowable Depletion (MAD) and two planting patterns (single-row and double-row) on evapotranspiration (ET) partitioning, water use efficiency [...] Read more.

Efficient water management is critical for sustainable crop production in arid and semi-arid regions. This study investigated the effects of two irrigation regimes—25% and 50% Management Allowable Depletion (MAD) and two planting patterns (single-row and double-row) on evapotranspiration (ET) partitioning, water use efficiency (WUE), and water footprint (WF) in drip-irrigated faba bean (Vicia faba L.). Field data were combined with a leaf area index (LAI)-based model to estimate the relative contributions of transpiration (T) and evaporation (E) to total ET. The highest grain yield (6171 kg ha⁻¹) and the lowest blue (570 m³ ton⁻¹) and green (68 m³ ton⁻¹) water footprints were recorded under the 25% MAD with double-row planting. This treatment also achieved the highest proportion of transpiration in ET (70%), indicating a shift toward productive water use. In contrast, the lowest-performing treatment (50% MAD, single-row) had the highest total water footprint (792 m³ ton⁻¹) and the lowest transpiration share (44%). Although high-density planting slightly reduced WUE based on transpiration, it improved overall water efficiency when total input (ETc) was considered (1.57 kg m⁻³ for total input WUE, 4.17 kg/m⁻³ for T-based WUE). These findings highlight the importance of integrating irrigation scheduling and planting pattern to improve both physiological and agronomic water productivity. The approach offers a practical strategy for sustainable faba bean production in water-scarce environments and supports climate-resilient irrigation planning aligned with Iraq’s National Water Strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influence of Irrigation and Water Use on Agronomic Traits of Crops—2nd Edition)

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23 pages, 2091 KB

Open AccessArticle

Depicting the Physiological, Biochemical and Metabolic Responses to the Removal of Adventitious Roots and Their Functions in Cucumis melo Under Waterlogging Stress

by Huanxin Zhang, Chengpu Yan, Qian Chen and Guoquan Li

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2281; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102281 - 26 Sep 2025

Abstract

Waterlogging poses a grave abiotic stress that hampers crop productivity and survival due to reduced oxygen availability in the impacted tissues. To adapt to this hypoxic environment, the hypocotyls of melon (Cucumis melo L.) seedlings can produce a profusion of adventitious roots [...] Read more.

Waterlogging poses a grave abiotic stress that hampers crop productivity and survival due to reduced oxygen availability in the impacted tissues. To adapt to this hypoxic environment, the hypocotyls of melon (Cucumis melo L.) seedlings can produce a profusion of adventitious roots when exposed to waterlogging stress. However, research on the significance of these adventitious roots under waterlogging stress has been limited. The present study aimed to elucidate the critical role of adventitious roots by investigating the physiological, biochemical, and metabolic changes that occur following their removal during waterlogging stress. The removal of adventitious roots compromised the normal growth of melon seedlings, resulting in phenotypic abnormalities such as chlorotic and withered leaves. Our results indicated that the removal of adventitious roots led to significant reductions in total chlorophyll levels by 62.89% and 43.60% compared to the normal control condition and waterlogging stress alone, respectively. Additionally, in the adventitious root removal treatment, higher malondialdehyde (MDA) content, O₂^•− production rate, monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR) activity, alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) activity, the AsA/DHA ratio, proline content, jasmonic acid (JA) content, and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) content were observed. Specifically, JA levels were significantly enhanced by 180.54% and 52.05%, and ACC levels were significantly increased by 519.23% and 125.16% compared to the control and waterlogging stress conditions, respectively. Through untargeted metabolomic analysis, a total of 447 differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) were identified. Notably, jasmonic acid and brassinolide, which are involved in plant hormone signal transduction, along with cyanidin 3-(2G-xylosylrutinoside) classified as flavonoids, (2S,3′S)-α-amino-2-carboxy-5-oxo-1-pyrrolidinebutanoic acid categorized as proline and derivatives, and ligstroside-aglycone and foeniculoside VII annotated as terpenoids, exhibited key roles in the waterlogging response. This research enhances our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the removal of adventitious roots during waterlogging stress, as well as the associated physiological, biochemical, and metabolic changes. These findings provide valuable insights into the crucial role of adventitious roots in melon seedlings subjected to waterlogging stress and may inform strategies for enhancing waterlogging tolerance in breeding practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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21 pages, 2235 KB

Open AccessArticle

Root Growth and Branching of Two Cycas Species Are Influenced by Form of Nitrogen Fertilizer

by Thomas E. Marler

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2280; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102280 - 26 Sep 2025

Abstract

Horticultural research into the group of plants known as cycads has been deficient, and this includes the study of root growth and function. The form of nitrogen (N) available to plants is known to influence root growth and morphology. The response of cycad [...] Read more.

Horticultural research into the group of plants known as cycads has been deficient, and this includes the study of root growth and function. The form of nitrogen (N) available to plants is known to influence root growth and morphology. The response of cycad roots to N has not been studied to date. Cycas revoluta and Cycas edentata seedlings were grown in hydroponic culture and provided urea, nitrate, or ammonium forms of N. Solutions with all three forms of N increased root growth and branching when compared with nutrient solution devoid of N, with ammonium eliciting the greatest increases. Ammonium increased lateral root length 210% for C. revoluta and 164% for C. edentata. Ammonium decreased specific root length 38% for C. revoluta and 39% for C. edentata. The influence of the N source on stem and leaf growth was minimal. Ammonium increased the root-to-shoot ratio 15% for C. revoluta and 51% for C. edentata, but urea and nitrate did not influence this plant trait. A mixture of nitrate and ammonium generated plant responses that were no different from ammonium alone. The plants supplied with N in the solution produced coralloid root growth that was 14% of the no-N plants for C. revoluta and 22% of the no-N plants for C. edentata. This initial determination of the cycad plant response to the N form indicated that root plasticity was considerable and ammonium stimulated root growth more so than urea or nitrate. Long-term growth studies in mineral soils and nursery container medium are needed to determine if these findings from the hydroponic culture of small seedlings translate to general recommendations for the preferential use of ammonium for cycad culture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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18 pages, 667 KB

Open AccessArticle

Red Pepper Fermentation with Geothermal Mineral Water: Impact on Nutritional Profile and Quality Characteristics

by Anna Wrzodak, Justyna Szwejda-Grzybowska, Wioletta Popińska and Monika Mieszczakowska-Frąc

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2279; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102279 - 26 Sep 2025

Abstract

Red bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) is a valuable source of health-promoting phytochemicals and essential minerals. This study investigated the impact of using geothermal mineral water versus tap water as the fermentation medium on the nutritional, physicochemical, and sensory properties of two [...] Read more.

Red bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) is a valuable source of health-promoting phytochemicals and essential minerals. This study investigated the impact of using geothermal mineral water versus tap water as the fermentation medium on the nutritional, physicochemical, and sensory properties of two red bell peppers (cultivars ‘Yecla F₁’ and ‘Salomon F₁’). The results showed that fermentation caused a significant decrease in the content of L-ascorbic acid (by 30–50%), carotenoids (~30%) and polyphenols (by 25–30%), with lower nutrient losses observed in peppers fermented with geothermal water. In addition, fermentation with geothermal water increased the calcium, magnesium, and potassium contents of the peppers compared to tap water. Sensory analysis showed that the pepper cultivars had a greater impact on the overall sensory quality than the fermentation medium or the evaluation time, although geothermal water had a positive effect on the texture of the fermented peppers. These results suggest that geothermal water may be a beneficial alternative to traditional water sources in vegetable fermentation, improving both the nutritional and sensory properties of the final product. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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18 pages, 1717 KB

Open AccessArticle

Native Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria Mitigate the Effect of the Phytopathogen Sclerotium rolfsii on Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) Plants in a P-Deficient Environment

by Ana Laura Gentile, Maria Soledad Figueredo, Maria Soledad Anzuay, Maria Laura Tonelli, Adriana Fabra, Tania Taurian and Liliana Ludueña

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2278; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102278 - 26 Sep 2025

Abstract

Phosphorus (P) deficiency and soil-borne fungal diseases are major constraints to peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) production. Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) can improve P availability in the soil, thereby promoting plant growth. However, their potential to improve plant resistance against pathogens under P-limited conditions [...] Read more.

Phosphorus (P) deficiency and soil-borne fungal diseases are major constraints to peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) production. Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) can improve P availability in the soil, thereby promoting plant growth. However, their potential to improve plant resistance against pathogens under P-limited conditions remains poorly understood. In this study, we first evaluated the ability of two PSB strains, Enterobacter sp. J49 and Serratia sp. S119, to induce systemic resistance (ISR) in peanut plants against the fungal pathogen Sclerotium rolfsii. Results showed that strain S119 reduced disease severity by 40%, whereas strain J49 reduced both incidence (30%) and severity (40%). The protective effect produced by strain J49 was mediated by ISR, as evidenced by the early increase in phenolic compounds accumulation (48 h) and total peroxidase activity (72 h) in inoculated plants. Under P-deficient conditions, the J49 strain was also able to protect peanut plants against S. rolfsii, as demonstrated by a significant reduction in disease severity (55%). These findings highlight the potential of multifunctional bacterium Enterobacter sp. J49 to enhance sustainable peanut production by simultaneously improving P acquisition and strengthening plant defense mechanisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress of Beneficial Microorganisms in Controlling Crop Pathogens)

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15 pages, 4356 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Phosphorus Input on Rhizosphere Soil Respiration Rate and Microbial Community in Corn and Soybean

by Demin Rao, Yunlong Wang, Fangang Meng, Tong Cheng, Debin Yu, Jing Zhao, Qiang Qiu, Xiaoyan Yan, Wei Zhang and Hongyan Zhao

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2277; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102277 - 25 Sep 2025

Abstract

Phosphorus inputs play a critical role in modulating microbial dynamics in crop rhizosphere soils, yet their specific effects remain underexplored. This study investigated the impacts of P addition on soil respiration rates, enzyme activities, and microbial communities in maize and soybean rhizosphere soils [...] Read more.

Phosphorus inputs play a critical role in modulating microbial dynamics in crop rhizosphere soils, yet their specific effects remain underexplored. This study investigated the impacts of P addition on soil respiration rates, enzyme activities, and microbial communities in maize and soybean rhizosphere soils under a 20-year corn-soybean rotation system. Results demonstrated that P inputs significantly elevated rhizosphere soil respiration rates. In maize, LP treatment yielded the highest initial rate (3.2 times CK on day 0) and maximum rate (1.45 times CK), peaking early (days 0–4). In soybean, HP treatment produced the peak rate, occurring on day 4. Glucosidase activity increased under P treatments, with HP in maize showing values up to 1.5–2 times CK before day 8, and HP in soybean peaking at 1.2 times CK on day 8. Acid and neutral phosphatase activities generally declined initially, reflecting feedback inhibition, while alkaline phosphatase rose early. Microbial community structure shifted markedly. Key taxa like Reyranella and Luteimonas increased with P concentration, while Gp1 decreased. Correlation analysis indicated strong associations; e.g., Proteobacteria positively correlated with acid phosphatase and negatively with neutral phosphatase. These findings underscore the crop-specific responses of rhizosphere microbiomes to P inputs, informing targeted fertilization strategies for enhanced nutrient efficiency and sustainable agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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15 pages, 609 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Management and Digital Tools to Reduce Waste in Plant Protection Process

by Marianna Cardi Peccinelli, Marcos Milan and Thiago Libório Romanelli

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2276; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102276 - 25 Sep 2025

Abstract

The search for higher efficiency in agribusiness supports the adoption of digital tools and Lean Production principles in agricultural spraying, a crucial operation for crops. Spraying is essential to ensure yield, quality, cost efficiency, and environmental protection. This study analyzed operational data from [...] Read more.

The search for higher efficiency in agribusiness supports the adoption of digital tools and Lean Production principles in agricultural spraying, a crucial operation for crops. Spraying is essential to ensure yield, quality, cost efficiency, and environmental protection. This study analyzed operational data from self-propelled sprayers in soybean and corn fields, classifying hours, calculating efficiencies, and applying statistical process control. Efficiencies were investigated by combining Lean Production principles with CAN-based digital monitoring, which enabled the identification of non-value-adding activities and supported the real-time management of spraying operations. The results showed that productive time accounted for 41.2% of total recorded hours, corresponding to effective operation and auxiliary tasks directly associated with the execution of spraying activities. A high proportion of unrecorded hours (21.2%) was also observed, reflecting discrepancies between administrative work schedules and machine-logged data. Additionally, coefficients of variation for operational speed and fuel consumption were 12.1% and 24.0%, respectively. Correcting special causes increased work capacity (4.9%) and reduced fuel consumption (0.9%). Economic simulations, based on efficiencies, operating parameters of the sprayer, and cost indicators, indicated that increasing scale reduces costs when installed capacity is carefully managed. Integrating telemetry with Lean Production principles enables real-time resource optimization and waste reduction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural Systems: Enhancing Efficiency and Reducing Environmental Impact)

13 pages, 681 KB

Open AccessArticle

Speed Breeding with Early Harvest Shortens the Growth Cycle of Barley

by Gopika Gopinathan, Brigid Meints, Pablo Sandro and Lucia Gutiérrez

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2275; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102275 - 25 Sep 2025

Abstract

Speed breeding, where environmental conditions such as photoperiod, temperature, and nutrient availability are manipulated to accelerate plant development and reduce breeding cycle length, can be especially beneficial in crops such as barley. Speed breeding combined with early harvest shortens the development cycle in [...] Read more.

Speed breeding, where environmental conditions such as photoperiod, temperature, and nutrient availability are manipulated to accelerate plant development and reduce breeding cycle length, can be especially beneficial in crops such as barley. Speed breeding combined with early harvest shortens the development cycle in some species, but it has not been successfully developed for barley. This study aimed to investigate whether a speed breeding system (SBS) combined with early harvest could further shorten the development cycle of barley for more efficient utilization in breeding programs. Eleven genotypes were evaluated under two systems: an SBS (photoperiod: 22 h; temperatures: 22 °C in the day, 16 °C at night) and normal breeding system (NBS, photoperiod: 16 h; temperatures: 22 °C in the day, 12 °C at night). On average, flowering occurred 15 days earlier in the SBS compared to the NBS. In the SBS, harvest at 21 days after flowering (DAF) achieved high germination rates and enabled a reduction in the cycle by 20%. When utilizing speed breeding with early harvest, the breeding cycle was complete in 88 days (21 DAF—SBS) compared to 110 days (28 DAF—NBS), which in turn will facilitate the faster development of targeted barley varieties and cultivars in the northern United States. This study is the first report of early-harvest success in barley when speed breeding conditions are used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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35 pages, 89447 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

A Systematic Review of Modeling and Control Approaches for Path Tracking in Unmanned Agricultural Ground Vehicles

by Yafei Zhang, Hui Liu, Yayun Shen, Siwei He, Hui Wang and Yue Shen

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2274; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102274 - 25 Sep 2025

Abstract

With the advancement of precision agriculture, the autonomous navigation of unmanned agricultural ground vehicles (UAGVs) has emerged as a critical research topic. As a fundamental component of autonomous navigation, path-tracking control is essential for ensuring the accurate and stable operation of UAGVs. However, [...] Read more.

With the advancement of precision agriculture, the autonomous navigation of unmanned agricultural ground vehicles (UAGVs) has emerged as a critical research topic. As a fundamental component of autonomous navigation, path-tracking control is essential for ensuring the accurate and stable operation of UAGVs. However, achieving high-precision and robust tracking in agricultural environments remains challenging due to unstructured terrain, variable wheel slip, and complex dynamic disturbances. This review provides a structured and comprehensive survey of modeling and control methodologies for UAGVs, with particular emphasis on control-theoretic formulations and their applicability across diverse agricultural scenarios. In contrast to prior reviews, the modeling approaches are systematically classified into geometric, kinematic, and dynamic models, including extended formulations that incorporate wheel slip and external disturbances. Furthermore, this paper systematically reviews commonly adopted path-tracking strategies for UAGVs, including proportional–integral–derivative (PID) control, pure pursuit (PP), Stanley control, sliding mode control (SMC), model predictive control (MPC), and learning-based approaches. Emphasis is placed on their theoretical underpinnings, tracking accuracy, adaptability to unstructured field environments, and computational efficiency. In addition, several key technical challenges are identified, such as terrain-adaptive vehicle modeling, slip compensation mechanisms, real-time implementation under hardware constraints, and the cooperative control of multiple UAGVs operating in dynamic agricultural scenarios. By presenting a detailed review from a control-centric perspective, this study aims to serve as a valuable reference for researchers and practitioners developing intelligent agricultural vehicle systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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27 pages, 6025 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimized Random Forest Framework for Integrating Cultivar, Environmental, and Phenological Interactions in Crop Yield Prediction

by Jiaojiao Tan, Lu Jiang, Yingnan Wei, Ning Yao, Gang Zhao and Qiang Yu

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2273; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102273 - 25 Sep 2025

Abstract

Accurate rice yield prediction remains a major challenge due to the complex and nonlinear interactions among cultivar, environment, and phenology. Existing approaches often focus on analyzing individual components while ignoring their interdependencies, which results in limited predictive accuracy and generalizability. To overcome these [...] Read more.

Accurate rice yield prediction remains a major challenge due to the complex and nonlinear interactions among cultivar, environment, and phenology. Existing approaches often focus on analyzing individual components while ignoring their interdependencies, which results in limited predictive accuracy and generalizability. To overcome these problems, this study proposes a novel interpretable random forest model that integrates cultivar, environmental, and phenological dimensions. Different from conventional approaches, the proposed method incorporates a factor-combination optimization strategy to identify the most effective information for yield estimation. For analysis, 24 key determinants were screened, including the geographical location, meteorological conditions, phenological events, and cultivar traits. The RF models were also evaluated when built with seven factor combinations. The results reveal the following: (1) Meteorological conditions play a dominant role during the vegetative growth period, including net solar radiation (r = 0.42), daylength (r = 0.38), and thermal summation (r = 0.29). On the other hand, thermal summation (r = 0.28), mean minimum temperature (r = −0.23), and mean temperature (r = −0.20) are most relevant during the reproductive growth period. (2) The full-factor model achieves optimal performance (RMSE = 601.45 kg/ha and MAE = 454.98 kg/ha, R² = 0.77). (3) Importance analysis reveals that meteorological factors provide the greatest contribution (53.59%), followed by phenological factors (20.39%), geographical factors (17.20%), and cultivar (8.82%), respectively. The results also reveal that threshold effects of key determinants on yield, and identify mid-April to early May as the optimal sowing window. These findings demonstrate that integrating cultivar, environment, and phenology factors creates a powerful predictive model for rice yields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Machine Learning and Modelling in Food Crops)

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25 pages, 5106 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Circular Approach in Development of Microbial Biostimulants Using Winery Wastewater

by Tatjana Dujković, Ivana Danilov, Vanja Vlajkov, Marina Savić, Zdravko Šumić, Aleksandar Jokić and Jovana Grahovac

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2272; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102272 - 25 Sep 2025

Abstract

Sustainable development requires implementation of eco-friendly practices and a circular approach in both agricultural and industrial systems. This study evaluated winery flotation wastewater (WFW) as a cultivation substrate for Bacillus sp. 10/R isolated from grapevine rhizosphere for sustainable biostimulant production. The bacterial isolate [...] Read more.

Sustainable development requires implementation of eco-friendly practices and a circular approach in both agricultural and industrial systems. This study evaluated winery flotation wastewater (WFW) as a cultivation substrate for Bacillus sp. 10/R isolated from grapevine rhizosphere for sustainable biostimulant production. The bacterial isolate was characterized by 16S rRNA sequencing and biochemical tests, showing the highest similarity with Bacillus mojavensis and Bacillus halotolerans. Plant growth-promoting traits were assessed via assays for hydrolytic enzymes, ACC (1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate) deaminase, and IAA (indole acetic acid) production, as well as for phosphate solubilization. The isolate was cultivated in WFW, including monitoring of biomass growth, enzymatic activity, and substrate composition changes. The resulting cultivation broths based on WFW (WFW-CB) and nutrient broth (NB-CB) were tested as barley seed treatment at five dosages, using sterile media and water as controls. The results have displayed strong pectinase (EAI–enzyme activity index 2.79) and cellulase activity (2.33), moderate xylanase (1.75) and ACC deaminase activity (growth zone 54.67 ± 0.58 mm), and moderate IAA production (9.66 µg/mL). Biomass content has increased by two log units within 48 h (up to 9.06 log CFU/mL), with stable pectinase activity (~2.2 U/mL). Germination assays revealed that 10% WFW-CB and 50% WFW enhanced germination indices and biomass, whereas undiluted WFW and WFW-CB inhibited germination. These results indicate that WFW is a suitable substrate for Bacillus sp. 10/R cultivation, linking industrial wastewater valorization with plant biostimulant production in a circular economy framework. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling of Organic Wastes in Agriculture: Serving for Sustainable Agriculture)

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30 pages, 1350 KB

Open AccessReview

Mango Quality Assessment Using Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Hyperspectral Imaging: A Systematic Review

by Ramesh Kumar Chaudhary, Arjun Neupane, Zhenglin Wang and Kerry Walsh

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2271; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102271 - 25 Sep 2025

Abstract

Mango is considered a high-value tropical fruit, and its commercial and consumer acceptance depends on internal and external quality attributes such as Total Soluble Solids (TSS), Dry Matter Content (DMC), firmness, ripeness, and surface defects. In recent years, non-destructive sensing technologies such as [...] Read more.

Mango is considered a high-value tropical fruit, and its commercial and consumer acceptance depends on internal and external quality attributes such as Total Soluble Solids (TSS), Dry Matter Content (DMC), firmness, ripeness, and surface defects. In recent years, non-destructive sensing technologies such as Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) and Hyperspectral Imaging (HSI) have gained prominence for their ability to quickly and accurately evaluate mango quality. In this study, 101 articles published within the last ten years, were systematically retrieved, and 85 research papers were selected for detailed analysis. The review focuses on statistical analysis, conventional machine learning, deep learning, and transformer-based methods applied to mango quality assessment. The objective is to systematically review and analyse data-driven models for non-destructive mango grading using NIRS and HSI technologies, with particular emphasis on data collection methods, preprocessing techniques, dimensionality reduction, and predictive modelling approaches. This review aims to identify the most effective and widely adopted machine learning and deep learning methods, especially transformer models, for accurate and real-time mango quality assessment. Furthermore, it highlights key quality traits evaluated, current research gaps, and future opportunities to advance intelligent, real-time, and automated mango grading systems for practical use in the fruit industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Information System for Agriculture Based on Vision Technology)

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14 pages, 1250 KB

Open AccessArticle

Free- and Bound-Form Terpenes in Sweet Potato Peel and Their Antifungal Activity Against Aspergillus flavus-Induced Tomato Spoilage

by Gabriela Rodriguez, Manish Thapaliya, Duyen Bui, Fatemeh Malekian, Achyut Adhikari and Zhimin Xu

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2270; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102270 - 25 Sep 2025

Abstract

Natural preservatives are gaining attention as chemical-free solutions to extend produce shelf life and prevent microbial spoilage. Therefore, sweet potato peel (SPP) was investigated as a source of antifungal bioactive compounds in this study. We evaluated essential oils and, for the first time, [...] Read more.

Natural preservatives are gaining attention as chemical-free solutions to extend produce shelf life and prevent microbial spoilage. Therefore, sweet potato peel (SPP) was investigated as a source of antifungal bioactive compounds in this study. We evaluated essential oils and, for the first time, a bound terpene (BT) concentrate extracted from SPP against Aspergillus flavus, using both in vitro and in vivo assays. Murasaki organic Japanese sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) peels, A. flavus AF13, a highly aflatoxigenic fungus, and Creole tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) fruits were used in the study. Essential oils were extracted by hydrodistillation (HD) and vacuum distillation (VD), while the BT fraction was isolated and concentrated. HD and VD yielded 19 and 10 terpenes, respectively, with linalool and α-terpineol dominating and representing more than 50% of total terpenes in both distillates. The BT concentrate demonstrated significant inhibition of A. flavus growth at concentrations starting from 12.5 µL/mL. The strongest effect was observed at 100 µL/mL, with a 26.0 ± 1.0 mm inhibition zone and 55.56 ± 4.53% growth reduction. In contrast, HD and VD distillates showed no antifungal activity in either in vitro or in vivo assays. Consistently, the BT concentrate-treated tomatoes reduced fungal growth and spoilage, with lesion diameters less than 10 mm after 7 days of storage, while the HD and VD distillate treatments had diameters over 20 mm, and the untreated control had diameters over 60 mm. These findings highlight that SPP waste could be an economical and bio-based source for developing natural antifungal ingredients. The success is anticipated to offer a potential alternative to current synthetic fungicides in preventing fungi A. flavus-induced spoilage of nightshade vegetables. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytopathogens and Crop Diseases)

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12 pages, 2443 KB

Open AccessReview

Functions of RNA N⁶-Methyladenosine Demethylases in Plant Development and Stress Responses

by Ran Su, Ying Cao, Wenjie Yu, Shanhua Lyu, Yinglun Fan and Haiyun Li

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2269; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102269 - 25 Sep 2025

Abstract

N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A), the most abundant internal modification in eukaryotic mRNA, regulates gene expression by modulating mRNA metabolism. Demethylases (“erasers”) specifically remove these m⁶A marks. In mammals, FTO and ALKBH5 (ALKBH family members) are key erasers regulating metabolism, [...] Read more.

N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A), the most abundant internal modification in eukaryotic mRNA, regulates gene expression by modulating mRNA metabolism. Demethylases (“erasers”) specifically remove these m⁶A marks. In mammals, FTO and ALKBH5 (ALKBH family members) are key erasers regulating metabolism, reproduction, and development. Notably, heterologous expression of human FTO in rice and potato significantly increase yield. In contrast, research on plant m⁶A demethylases is still in its infancy, though several ALKBH family members have been identified. These enzymes play crucial roles in regulating plant growth and development, as well as in mediating stress responses, highlighting their considerable potential in enhancing crop yield and improving agronomic traits. This review summarizes current knowledge on identified m⁶A demethylases, conducts a phylogenetic analysis of the ALKBH family across representative plant species, and elaborates on the roles of these enzymes in key biological processes such as flowering time regulation, fruit ripening, male fertility, and responses to both biotic and abiotic stresses. Further research on plant RNA m⁶A demethylases will deepen our understanding of RNA epigenetic regulatory mechanisms, uncover valuable genetic resources, and ultimately facilitate the breeding of high-yielding, high-quality crop varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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16 pages, 394 KB

Open AccessReview

From Surveillance to Sustainable Control: A Global Review of Strategies for Locust Management

by Christina Panopoulou and Antonios Tsagkarakis

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2268; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102268 - 25 Sep 2025

Abstract

Locusts represent a persistent global agricultural pest, responsible for significant crop losses and socio-economic repercussions. The initiation of chemical control measures dates back to the late 19th century, with the use of poisoned baits, before advancing in the mid-20th century with the introduction [...] Read more.

Locusts represent a persistent global agricultural pest, responsible for significant crop losses and socio-economic repercussions. The initiation of chemical control measures dates back to the late 19th century, with the use of poisoned baits, before advancing in the mid-20th century with the introduction of organochlorines, such as dieldrin. Despite their efficacy, the associated environmental, ecological, and human health risks led to the prohibition of dieldrin by the United States and the FAO by 1988. The demand for insecticides with reduced persistence and toxicity prompted the establishment of international organizations to coordinate locust research and management. In recent decades, chemical control has transitioned towards compounds with diminished persistence and selective agents. Concurrently, research has progressed in the development of bioinsecticides, notably Metarhizium acridum, and has reinforced preventive strategies. Emerging technologies, including remote sensing and machine learning, have facilitated early monitoring and predictive modeling, thereby enhancing outbreak forecasting. These tools support proactive, targeted interventions and are consistent with Integrated Pest Management principles, promoting more sustainable and ecologically responsible locust control strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pests, Pesticides, Pollinators and Sustainable Farming)

16 pages, 3069 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fungicidal Potential of 3-Acyl-6-bromoindole Derivatives: Synthesis, In Vitro Activity, and Molecular Docking Against Botrytis cinerea and Monilinia fructicola

by Evelyn Muñoz, Katy Díaz, Iván Montenegro, Nelson Caro, Constanza Reyes, Valentina Silva and Alejandro Madrid

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2267; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102267 - 24 Sep 2025

Abstract

Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) and brown rot (Monilinia fructicola) are devastating diseases in stone fruit production. In this work, a series of 3-acyl-6-bromoindoles, including six new compounds, were synthesized via green and efficient microwave-assisted methodology to evaluate their antifungal [...] Read more.

Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) and brown rot (Monilinia fructicola) are devastating diseases in stone fruit production. In this work, a series of 3-acyl-6-bromoindoles, including six new compounds, were synthesized via green and efficient microwave-assisted methodology to evaluate their antifungal potential. Bioassays revealed a remarkable duality in the compounds’ mechanism of action. The starting material, 6-bromoindole (I), proved to be a highly potent inhibitor of mycelial growth, with a remarkable EC₅₀ of 11.62 µg/mL against B. cinerea and 18.84 µg/mL against M. fructicola, surpassing BC-1000^® and Captan^® and comparable to Mystic^®. Conversely, compound I was ineffective at inhibiting conidial germination. In stark contrast, the simple acetylated derivative 3-acetyl-6-bromoindole (II) emerged as a formidable inhibitor of spore germination, achieving 100% inhibition for B. cinerea and 96% for M. fructicola, outperforming several controls. This suggests that, while compound I is effective against established infections, compound II acts as a powerful preventative agent against initial spore-based propagation. The antifungal activity of the compounds directly correlates with their ability to bind to the enzymes SDH and MfCat2, the latter being the main mechanism of action. These findings highlight the potential of developing specialized fungicides from the 6-bromoindole scaffold, targeting different stages of fungal development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Aspects as a Basis for Future Pest Integrated Management—2nd Edition)

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21 pages, 2296 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Transcriptomic and Metabolomic Analyses of Seed-Filling Disorders in Soybeans Under Different Ecological Conditions

by Junxia Huang, Wei Zheng, Zicong Liang, Zhenghao Zhang, Jiayi Li, Huijun Zhang, Haiying Wang, Xue Ao, Xingdong Yao and Futi Xie

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2266; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102266 - 24 Sep 2025

Abstract

Disorders in soybean seed-filling can lead to wrinkled seeds, affecting yield and quality. Previous studies have demonstrated that some soybean cultivars from Jiamusi, Heilongjiang Province (cold-temperate continental monsoon, ~3.5 °C mean annual temperature, ~530 mm precipitation) exhibit seed-filling disorders when cultivated in Shenyang, [...] Read more.

Disorders in soybean seed-filling can lead to wrinkled seeds, affecting yield and quality. Previous studies have demonstrated that some soybean cultivars from Jiamusi, Heilongjiang Province (cold-temperate continental monsoon, ~3.5 °C mean annual temperature, ~530 mm precipitation) exhibit seed-filling disorders when cultivated in Shenyang, Liaoning Province (mid-temperate semi-humid continental monsoon, ~8.3 °C, ~610 mm). However, the causes and regulatory mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, Henong 76 (a soybean cultivar with seeds less prone to wrinkling) and Heihe 43 (a soybean cultivar with seeds prone to wrinkling) were used as experimental materials. They were sown simultaneously in Jiamusi and Shenyang, respectively, to explore the causes of seed-filling disorders in Heihe 43. The results indicated that there were significant differences in the contents of soluble sugars and starch, as well as in the activities of sucrose synthase and invertase, between the seeds of Henong 76 and Heihe 43 grown in Shenyang. However, no significant differences were found between them in Jiamusi. Transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses suggested that genes related to controlling starch hydrolysis (isoamylase, α-amylase, and glycogen phosphorylase) and sucrose synthesis and decomposition (sucrose synthase, invertase, glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, and phosphoglucomutase) in Heihe 43 were upregulated in Shenyang. In contrast, genes regulating plant hormone signal transduction (auxin, gibberellin, abscisic acid, and cytokinin) were generally downregulated. These changes led to differences in metabolites, resulting in the occurrence of seed-filling disorders. Furthermore, we analyzed the climatic conditions of the two cultivars during the soybean seed-filling period. The results indicated that high temperature might be the primary meteorological factor contributing to the occurrence of seed-filling disorders. All results indicated that the insufficient accumulation of sugars in seeds due to exposure to high temperatures during the seed-filling period is the primary cause of the prone-to-wrinkling phenomenon of the Heihe 43 cultivar under the ecological conditions of Shenyang. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop and Vegetable Physiology Under Environmental Stresses—2nd Edition)

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61 pages, 2653 KB

Open AccessReview

Integrated Approach of Using Biostimulants for Improving Growth, Physiological Traits, and Tolerance to Abiotic Stressors in Rice and Soybean

by Pyae Pyae Win, Hyun-Hwa Park and Yong-In Kuk

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2265; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102265 - 24 Sep 2025

Abstract

Abiotic stressors such as drought, salinity, waterlogging, and high and low temperatures significantly reduce the growth and productivity of rice (Oryza sativa) and soybean (Glycine max), which are vital for global food and nutritional security. These stressors disrupt physiological, [...] Read more.

Abiotic stressors such as drought, salinity, waterlogging, and high and low temperatures significantly reduce the growth and productivity of rice (Oryza sativa) and soybean (Glycine max), which are vital for global food and nutritional security. These stressors disrupt physiological, biochemical, and molecular processes, resulting in decreased yield and quality. Biostimulants represent promising sustainable solutions to alleviate stress-induced damage and improve crop performance under stressful conditions. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the role of biostimulants in enhancing rice and soybean resilience under abiotic stress. Both microbial and non-microbial biostimulants including phytohormones such as salicylic acid; melatonin; humic and fulvic substances; seaweed extracts; nanoparticles; and beneficial microbes have been discussed. Biostimulants enhance antioxidant defenses, improve photosynthesis and nutrient uptake, regulate hormones, and activate stress-responsive genes, thereby supporting growth and yield. Moreover, biostimulants regulate molecular pathways such as ABA- and ROS-mediated signaling and activate key transcription factors (e.g., WRKY, DREB, NAC), linking molecular responses with physiological and phenotypic resilience. The effectiveness of biostimulants depends on crop species, growth stage, stress severity and application method. This review summarizes recent findings on the role of biostimulants in enhancing the mechanisms underlying growth, yield, and stress tolerance of rice and soybean under abiotic stress. Additionally, the incorporation of biostimulants into sustainable farming practices to increase productivity in the context of climate-related challenges has been discussed. Furthermore, the necessity for additional research to elucidate the underlying mechanisms, refine application methods, and verify their effectiveness in field conditions has been highlighted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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24 pages, 841 KB

Open AccessReview

Measuring Herbage Mass: A Review

by Varthani Susruthan, Daniel J. Donaghy, Paul R. Kenyon, Nicholas W. Sneddon and Andrew D. Cartmill

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2264; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102264 - 24 Sep 2025

Abstract

The accurate measurement of herbage mass is essential for feed budgeting and the management of sustainable and profitable grazing systems. There are many techniques available to estimate herbage mass in pastoral systems, and these vary in accuracy, cost, and time taken to implement. [...] Read more.

The accurate measurement of herbage mass is essential for feed budgeting and the management of sustainable and profitable grazing systems. There are many techniques available to estimate herbage mass in pastoral systems, and these vary in accuracy, cost, and time taken to implement. In situ and remote sensing techniques are both associated with moderate to high error, as herbage mass is affected by a number of dependent and independent factors, including sward composition, soil structure, chemical characteristics and moisture levels, climatic conditions, and grazing management, which must be considered in the development of an accurate local calibration model for precise estimation of herbage mass. This review provides an overview of commonly used herbage mass assessment techniques and describes their limitations, synergies, and trade-offs, and also covers the integration of new technologies which have the potential to monitor pastures at scale. This review highlights the need for further research and to integrate new technologies for accurate and precise measurement of herbage mass, noting the lack of calibration with in situ methods, the need for development of new protocols for assessment, variance in equipment and software compatibility, and the need to evaluate the effectiveness of methods/techniques on a variety of livestock operations for extended periods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Grassland and Pasture Science)

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27 pages, 3729 KB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Aggregate Stability Under Freeze–Thaw Cycles in Mollisols as Evidenced by ¹⁵N Distribution

by Yao Wang, Meng Zhou, Xiaoguang Jiao, Liangqian Ma, He Yu, Yimin Chen and Yueyu Sui

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2263; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102263 - 24 Sep 2025

Abstract

Freeze–thaw cycles (FTCs) influence soil nitrogen (N) dynamics and soil aggregate stability. However, the driving mechanism affecting aggregate stability from the combined perspective of N components and N distribution by ¹⁵N tracing technology in both bulk soils and soil aggregates remains worth [...] Read more.

Freeze–thaw cycles (FTCs) influence soil nitrogen (N) dynamics and soil aggregate stability. However, the driving mechanism affecting aggregate stability from the combined perspective of N components and N distribution by ¹⁵N tracing technology in both bulk soils and soil aggregates remains worth exploring. This study took the farmland Mollisols in Hailun City, Heilongjiang Province, as the research object, and investigated the variations in soil N components and aggregate stability across five freeze–thaw frequencies (1, 3, 5, 9, and 17 cycles) under three freeze–thaw temperatures (−9 °C/5 °C, −18 °C/5 °C, and −26 °C/5 °C) using ¹⁵N tracing technology. The results demonstrated that freeze–thaw frequency and temperature both influenced aggregate stability. Specifically, with the increase in freeze–thaw frequency, soil aggregate stability was reduced through decreasing the proportion of macroaggregates (2–0.25 mm), increasing the proportion of silt + clay fractions (<0.053 mm), and reducing the total N (TN) content of silt + clay fractions under higher freezing temperature (−9 °C/5 °C). In contrast, for lower freezing temperature (−18 °C/5 °C and −26 °C/5 °C), the increased freeze–thaw frequency enhances soil aggregate stability by decreasing the proportion of silt + clay fractions, increasing the proportion of microaggregates (0.25–0.053 mm), and reducing the TN contents of microaggregates and silt + clay fractions. These findings are essential for developing strategies to mitigate the adverse effects of FTCs on soil quality and ecosystem functions in cold regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycle in Agro-Ecosystems)

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19 pages, 9835 KB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling the Impact of Future Temperature Increases on Olive Oil Accumulation Patterns in the Iberian Peninsula

by José Manuel Cabezas, José Osmar Alza, Raúl de la Rosa, Cristina Santos, Mercedes del Río-Celestino and Ignacio Jesús Lorite

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2262; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102262 - 24 Sep 2025

Abstract

Oil content is a critical component of yield production in Mediterranean olive orchards, but it has received limited attention in modeling olive cultivation under extreme weather conditions. To address this gap, statistical and regression models based on multiple oil content measurements from field [...] Read more.

Oil content is a critical component of yield production in Mediterranean olive orchards, but it has received limited attention in modeling olive cultivation under extreme weather conditions. To address this gap, statistical and regression models based on multiple oil content measurements from field trials conducted with representative olive cultivars in the Guadalquivir basin (southern Iberian Peninsula), together with the latest future climate projections from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) for the Iberian Peninsula, were integrated to improve the modeling of its behavior under future climate conditions. Temperature was the most influential factor affecting the olive oil accumulation pattern. Summer temperature was negatively correlated with the onset of oil accumulation, the accumulation rate, and the maximum oil content (MOC), while it was positively correlated with the date at which MOC was reached. When these relationships were combined with CMIP6 climate projections, inland southern Spain emerge as one of the most affected areas in the Iberian Peninsula. In the near future period (2040–2069), projected climate warning is expected to result in an earlier onset of oil accumulation, delays of up to 33 days in reaching MOC, and reductions in MOC of up to 17.5 percentage points, corresponding to an average olive oil yield loss of up to 30.3%, considering only the olive oil yield loss associated with the reduction in MOC. These changes vary in intensity depending on the location, cultivar, climate period and the greenhouse gas emission scenario considered. This study confirms the critical importance of temperature in olive oil production, highlights the need to incorporate functions that account for the effects of rising temperature on MOC, and emphasizes the identification of adaptation measures to cope with increasing temperatures and more frequent heat waves. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

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21 pages, 3946 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Non Destructive Detection Method and Model Op-Timization of Nitrogen in Facility Lettuce Based on THz and NIR Hyperspectral

by Yixue Zhang, Jialiang Zheng, Jingbo Zhi, Jili Guo, Jin Hu, Wei Liu, Tiezhu Li and Xiaodong Zhang

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2261; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102261 - 24 Sep 2025

Abstract

Considering the growing demand for modern facility agriculture, it is essential to develop non-destructive technologies for assessing lettuce nutritional status. To overcome the limitations of traditional methods, which are destructive and time-consuming, this study proposes a multimodal non-destructive nitrogen detection method for lettuce [...] Read more.

Considering the growing demand for modern facility agriculture, it is essential to develop non-destructive technologies for assessing lettuce nutritional status. To overcome the limitations of traditional methods, which are destructive and time-consuming, this study proposes a multimodal non-destructive nitrogen detection method for lettuce based on multi-source imaging. The approach integrates terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) and near-infrared hyperspectral imaging (NIR-HSI) to achieve rapid and non-invasive nitrogen detection. Spectral imaging data of lettuce samples under different nitrogen gradients (20–150%) were simultaneously acquired using a THz-TDS system (0.2–1.2 THz) and a NIR-HSI system (1000–1600 nm), with image segmentation applied to remove background interference. During data processing, Savitzky–Golay smoothing, MSC (for THz data), and SNV (for NIR data) were employed for combined preprocessing, and sample partitioning was performed using the SPXY algorithm. Subsequently, SCARS/iPLS/IRIV algorithms were applied for THz feature selection, while RF/SPA/ICO methods were used for NIR feature screening, followed by nitrogen content prediction modeling with LS-SVM and KELM. Furthermore, small-sample learning was utilized to fuse crop feature information from the two modalities, providing a more comprehensive and effective detection strategy. The results demonstrated that the THz-based model with SCARS-selected power spectrum features and an RBF-kernel LS-SVM achieved the best predictive performance (R² = 0.96, RMSE = 0.20), while the NIR-based model with ICO features and an RBF-kernel LS-SVM achieved the highest accuracy (R² = 0.967, RMSE = 0.193). The fusion model, combining SCARS and ICO features, exhibited the best overall performance, with training accuracy of 96.25% and prediction accuracy of 95.94%. This dual-spectral technique leverages the complementary responses of nitrogen in molecular vibrations (THz) and organic chemical bonds (NIR), significantly enhancing model performance. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to realize the synergistic application of THz and NIR spectroscopy in nitrogen detection of facility-grown lettuce, providing a high-precision, non-destructive solution for rapid crop nutrition diagnosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Nutrition Diagnosis and Efficient Production)

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17 pages, 4248 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Distribution Characteristics of Soil Organic Carbon and Its Influencing Factors in the Loess Plateau

by Yan Zhu, Mei Dong, Xinwei Wang, Dongkai Chen, Yichao Zhang, Xin Liu, Ke Yang and Han Luo

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2260; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102260 - 24 Sep 2025

Abstract

Soil organic carbon (SOC) constitutes the largest terrestrial carbon pool and plays a crucial role in climate regulation, soil fertility, and ecosystem functioning. Understanding its spatiotemporal dynamics is particularly important in semi-arid regions, where fragile environments and extensive ecological restoration may alter carbon [...] Read more.

Soil organic carbon (SOC) constitutes the largest terrestrial carbon pool and plays a crucial role in climate regulation, soil fertility, and ecosystem functioning. Understanding its spatiotemporal dynamics is particularly important in semi-arid regions, where fragile environments and extensive ecological restoration may alter carbon cycling. The Loess Plateau, the world’s largest loess accumulation area with a history of severe erosion and large-scale vegetation restoration, provides a natural laboratory for examining how environmental gradients influence SOC storage over time. This study used a random forest model with multi-source environmental data to quantify soil organic carbon density (SOCD) dynamics in the 0–100 cm soil layer of the Loess Plateau from 2005 to 2020. SOCD showed strong spatial heterogeneity, decreasing from the humid southeast to the arid northwest. Over the 15-year period, total SOC storage increased from 4.84 to 5.23 Pg C (a 7.9% rise), while the annual sequestration rate declined from 0.046 to 0.020 kg·m⁻²·yr⁻¹, indicating that the regional carbon sink may be approaching saturation after two decades of restoration. Among soil types, Cambisols were the largest carbon pool, accounting for over 44% of total SOC storage. Vegetation productivity emerged as the dominant driver of SOC variability, with clay content as a secondary factor. These results indicate that although ecological restoration has substantially enhanced SOC storage, its marginal benefits are diminishing. Understanding the spatial and temporal patterns of SOC and their environmental drivers provides essential insights for evaluating long-term carbon sequestration potential and informing future land management strategies. Broader generalization requires multi-regional comparisons, long-term monitoring, and deeper soil investigations to capture ecosystem-scale carbon dynamics fully. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Long-Term Soil Organic Carbon Dynamics in Agroforestry)

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23 pages, 4691 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Drought Tolerance in Oat × Maize Addition Lines Through Biochemical and Yield Traits

by Tomasz Warzecha, Marzena Warchoł, Roman Bathelt, Jan Bocianowski, Dominika Idziak-Helmcke, Agnieszka Sutkowska and Edyta Skrzypek

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2259; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102259 - 24 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Oat × maize addition lines (OMAs) are plants of oat (Avena sativa L.) obtained by wide crossing with maize (Zea mays L.) that retained one or more maize chromosomes in the oat genome, which can result in morphological and physiological changes. [...] Read more.

Oat × maize addition lines (OMAs) are plants of oat (Avena sativa L.) obtained by wide crossing with maize (Zea mays L.) that retained one or more maize chromosomes in the oat genome, which can result in morphological and physiological changes. The aim of the study was to determine the relationship between phenolics, pigments, sugars, and yield components in 14 OMAs and oat cv. Bingo under soil drought. The plants were sown in pots in a vegetation tunnel. The pots were watered to the level of 70% field water capacity (FWC) and then drought treated to 20% FWC for 2 weeks. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that genotype and treatment significantly influenced the measured parameters. Out of 14 OMAs, lines 9 and 78b showed the highest grain weight and number, with the least amount of biomass loss under drought. These OMAs were the only two to equal or surpass the oat cv. Bingo under drought and control conditions. On average, soil drought caused decrease in biomass and the number and mass of grains (30%, 44%, 46%, respectively). Soil drought increased the amount of sugars by 15% and phenolics by 9% but decreased pigment contents by 8%. According to Pearson’s correlation coefficients, fifteen pairs of traits were positively and statistically significantly correlated in control and drought conditions. Significant relationships were found between the yield components and biochemical parameters on the fourteenth day of drought. A positive correlation occurred between the number and weight of kernels and the content of soluble sugars, chlorophyll a, b, and the sum of a and b. A negative correlation was found between all analyzed yield components and the content of phenolics. The results suggest the possibility of using such biochemical parameters as a quick physiological indicator of plant tolerance to soil drought. Variation in studied OMA lines reveals substantial differences in drought response, offering promising opportunities for targeted selection and breeding strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)

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Open AccessArticle

Polyvinylpolypyrrolidone Immobilized Cu, Cd and Zn in Soils and Reduced Their Uptake by Oilseed Rape

by Yiliu Wang, Diedrich Steffens, Yunsheng Jia and Huoyan Wang

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2258; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102258 - 23 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Organic amendments application has been proposed as an efficient method for remediation of heavy metals-contaminated soils. This study evaluated the performance of the water-insoluble organic material polyvinylpolypyrrolidone on decontaminating water and soil polluted by heavy metals Cu, Cd and Zn via batch trials, [...] Read more.

Organic amendments application has been proposed as an efficient method for remediation of heavy metals-contaminated soils. This study evaluated the performance of the water-insoluble organic material polyvinylpolypyrrolidone on decontaminating water and soil polluted by heavy metals Cu, Cd and Zn via batch trials, soil incubation and pot experiments with oilseed rape. The adsorption process of Cu, Cd and Zn by polyvinylpolypyrrolidone included a rapid step which achieved 92%, 76% and 87% of adsorption capacities within 10 min, followed with a slow step before reaching equilibrium which varied from 4 to 24 h among the three heavy metals. The maximum adsorption capacities were 327, 330 and 186 mg g⁻¹ for Cu, Cd and Zn, respectively. With application doses of polyvinylpolypyrrolidone ranging from 10 to 60 g kg⁻¹, the DTPA-extracted Cu, Cd and Zn showed 59–96%, 27–93% and 13–83% reduction compared to no addition. Moreover, the uptake of Cu, Cd and Zn by oilseed rape were significantly inhibited with polyvinylpolypyrrolidone amendments, and the effects improved with the accrual of polyvinylpolypyrrolidone. Intriguingly, the application of polyvinylpolypyrrolidone showed insignificant influences on nutrients taken up by oilseed rape. Results of the present study indicated that polyvinylpolypyrrolidone is a promising organic amendment for heavy metal (Cu, Cd and Zn) stabilization in polluted water and soil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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Agronomy, Volume 15, Issue 10 (October 2025) – 43 articles

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