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Review

Traumatic Brain Injury: Ultrastructural Features in Neuronal Ferroptosis, Glial Cell Activation and Polarization, and Blood–Brain Barrier Breakdown

by
Delong Qin
1,†,
Junmin Wang
1,†,
Anh Le
2,
Tom J. Wang
3,
Xuemei Chen
1 and
Jian Wang
1,*
1
Department of Human Anatomy, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
2
Program in the McKelvey School of Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, Saint Louis, MO 63130, USA
3
Winston Churchill High School, Potomac, MD 20854, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Cells 2021, 10(5), 1009; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10051009
Submission received: 9 February 2021 / Revised: 6 April 2021 / Accepted: 7 April 2021 / Published: 24 April 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aging and Disease)
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Abstract

The secondary injury process after traumatic brain injury (TBI) results in motor dysfunction, cognitive and emotional impairment, and poor outcomes. These injury cascades include excitotoxic injury, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, ion imbalance, inflammation, and increased vascular permeability. Electron microscopy is an irreplaceable tool to understand the complex pathogenesis of TBI as the secondary injury is usually accompanied by a series of pathologic changes at the ultra-micro level of the brain cells. These changes include the ultrastructural changes in different parts of the neurons (cell body, axon, and synapses), glial cells, and blood–brain barrier, etc. In view of the current difficulties in the treatment of TBI, identifying the changes in subcellular structures can help us better understand the complex pathologic cascade reactions after TBI and improve clinical diagnosis and treatment. The purpose of this review is to summarize and discuss the ultrastructural changes related to neurons (e.g., condensed mitochondrial membrane in ferroptosis), glial cells, and blood–brain barrier in the existing reports of TBI, to deepen the in-depth study of TBI pathomechanism, hoping to provide a future research direction of pathogenesis and treatment, with the ultimate aim of improving the prognosis of patients with TBI.
Keywords: cell structure; ferroptosis; inflammation; mitochondria; neuron; TBI; ultrastructure cell structure; ferroptosis; inflammation; mitochondria; neuron; TBI; ultrastructure

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MDPI and ACS Style

Qin, D.; Wang, J.; Le, A.; Wang, T.J.; Chen, X.; Wang, J. Traumatic Brain Injury: Ultrastructural Features in Neuronal Ferroptosis, Glial Cell Activation and Polarization, and Blood–Brain Barrier Breakdown. Cells 2021, 10, 1009. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10051009

AMA Style

Qin D, Wang J, Le A, Wang TJ, Chen X, Wang J. Traumatic Brain Injury: Ultrastructural Features in Neuronal Ferroptosis, Glial Cell Activation and Polarization, and Blood–Brain Barrier Breakdown. Cells. 2021; 10(5):1009. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10051009

Chicago/Turabian Style

Qin, Delong, Junmin Wang, Anh Le, Tom J. Wang, Xuemei Chen, and Jian Wang. 2021. "Traumatic Brain Injury: Ultrastructural Features in Neuronal Ferroptosis, Glial Cell Activation and Polarization, and Blood–Brain Barrier Breakdown" Cells 10, no. 5: 1009. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10051009

APA Style

Qin, D., Wang, J., Le, A., Wang, T. J., Chen, X., & Wang, J. (2021). Traumatic Brain Injury: Ultrastructural Features in Neuronal Ferroptosis, Glial Cell Activation and Polarization, and Blood–Brain Barrier Breakdown. Cells, 10(5), 1009. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10051009

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