Do Environmental Education Programs Reduce Pollution and Improve Air Quality? Impacts on Knowledge and Behavior Based on Evidence from a Mapping Review

Abstract

This review investigates and analyzes the state of the art on scientific evidence related to educational interventions to improve air quality indoors and outdoors through a mapping review. The review followed proposed guidelines for mapping reviews in environmental sciences and the steps described in the Template for a Mapping Study Protocol. The search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, Cinahl, and Google Scholar with no language restrictions, and was completed in January 2025. Three filters were applied: search, selection with inclusion and exclusion criteria (PECOS strategy), and data extraction. Two independent reviewers assessed article eligibility, and disagreements were resolved by a third researcher. Twenty-four studies that met the eligibility criteria were included. Five research questions were answered. Studies published between 1977 and 2024 were included, totaling 7289 participants aged 12 to 85. The geographic distribution was concentrated in China (five studies) and the United States (four studies), followed by South Korea, India, Australia, and other countries, with fewer publications. The methodological predominance was experimental studies; observational studies were also analyzed, although less frequently. The period with the greatest increase in the number of publications was between 2020 and 2024. The educational methods most commonly used in the studies were lectures and the delivery of information leaflets. Particulate matter with diameters of 2.5 μm and 10 μm (PM_2.5 and PM₁₀) were the most widely investigated pollutants in the studies. From our analyses, it was observed that the educational interventions to improve air quality, adopted in the selected studies, resulted in the acquisition of knowledge about the environmental effects and the importance of individual actions. The changes in behavior included the adoption of more sustainable practices and an improvement in air quality in the environment, with a significant reduction in pollutant emissions. We conclude that interventions through environmental education demonstrate great potential to improve air quality. Based on the mapped evidence, governments and global policymakers can use this information to develop new strategies or improve existing ones to reduce air pollution in affected environments and regions.

1. Introduction

Air pollution has emerged as the leading environmental threat to human health and well-being today [1]. As highlighted by the World Health Organization (WHO), virtually the entire global population (99%) is exposed to unhealthy breathing conditions, facing inhalation of high levels of fine particulate matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), ozone (O₃), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), and carbon monoxide (CO) [2]. Long-term exposure to these pollutants is associated with the development and worsening of various conditions, especially cardiovascular and respiratory diseases [3,4,5].

Although the harmful effects of air pollution have been widely studied, awareness of the topic in the general population is often nonexistent or limited. Many individuals underestimate the risks associated with chronic exposure to air pollutants, resulting in underreporting of air quality-related symptoms and diseases [6]. In addition, the “invisibility” aspect of air pollution may discourage people from acknowledging its direct connection to health problems. This lack of visual perception makes air pollution a less tangible threat, and as a result, many individuals dismiss the associated health problems as imaginary or attribute the cause to alternative factors, such as climate change, poor housing conditions, and pollen, among others [6,7].

Scientific evidence indicates that environmental education programs operate across multiple dimensions: they promote information and awareness about the sources and risks of air pollution; they encourage changes in individual behavior, such as adopting home ventilation practices, reducing waste burning, replacing wood-burning stoves, and reducing vehicle idling time in school areas; they strengthen community empowerment to monitor air quality and advocate for public policies; and they foster the integration of educational practices into school settings, stimulating institutional transformations at the municipal and community levels [8,9]. Recent literature, comprising experimental studies, systematic reviews, and citizen science experiences, has documented the relevance of these strategies in enhancing social participation and expanding the effects of environmental policies aimed at improving air quality [8,9]. Other evidence demonstrated that an augmented reality (AR) based environmental education program on fine dust for elementary and middle school students, to examine the impact of the program on their awareness and attitude, resulted in an improvement in students’ overall awareness of fine dust, and that attitudes changed positively after the program [10].

When there is some awareness of the health risks related to air pollution, an association is generally made only with pollutants present in the streets, from automobiles and industries (outdoor pollution), and there is a mistaken belief that the limits of an indoor space offer protection. This indicates a demand in the area of environmental education, since most of the time individuals are exposed to indoor pollution, as they spend an average of about 90% of their time in their homes, their work, and at school [11,12].

Due to growing evidence that exposure to poor air quality is linked to excess morbidity and mortality, there has been continued interest in evaluating the effectiveness of measures to reduce indoor and outdoor air pollution and promote changes in human behavior to reduce these impacts [13]. To date, we are unaware of comprehensive reviews in the literature that compile the evidence as a way to bring together the different methods of educational activities for behavior change, in order to reduce exposure to polluted environments. We also did not find reviews that ask specific questions on the subject, as a way to elucidate the state of the art on what has been studied and what gaps remain, which may well be answered by a mapping review. Thus, our objective with the present study was to investigate and analyze the state-of-the-art scientific evidence related to educational interventions to improve indoor and outdoor air quality through a mapping review.

2. Methods

2.1. Guidelines

The mapping review was carried out to analyze the state of the art of scientific evidence related to educational interventions to improve indoor and outdoor air quality. The work was based on the recommendations for mapping reviews in environmental sciences [14]. Three filters to gather (search procedure), select (inclusion and exclusion criteria), and extract (data extraction) relevant information from the literature were applied in this mapping review [15]. The steps outlined in the Template for a Mapping Study Protocol [16] were followed (see Supplementary Material Table S1).

2.2. Search Strategy

A comprehensive search for publications was conducted, considering only studies from peer-reviewed journals in the electronic databases: PubMed (National Library of Medicine and National Institutes of Health), Web of Science (Main Collection—Thomson Reuters Scientific), Cinahl, Embase, and Google Scholar. The search was carried out using the descriptors summarized in

Table 1. Search strategy adopted for the mapping review.

Search Terms	Descriptors
Environmental Education	“Education Program” OR “Environmental education” OR “Environmental management” OR “biofeedback” OR “Eco-feedback”
2. Air Pollution	“air pollution” OR air pollutant* OR “air quality” OR “particulate matter” OR “PM10” OR “PM2.5” OR “carbon monoxide” OR “carbon dioxide” OR “ozone” OR “nitrogen dioxide” OR “sulfur dioxide” OR “traffic-related air pollution” OR “Indoor air quality” OR “Airborne particles” OR “fine dust”
Combination	#1 AND #2

. The final literature search was completed on 24 January 2025.

The Web of Science database was prioritized in the decisions on duplicate articles, and searches were performed in the Main Collection with the terms related to environmental education and air pollution for the topic item and the stipulated time every year. Table S2 in the Supplementary Materials presents the search strategy used in the PubMed database.

2.3. Eligibility Criteria

Studies that met all the following criteria were included in the review: (a) Study design: interventions or experiments, retrospective or prospective cohort studies, cross-sectional studies, and case–control studies; (b) Subjects: Populations in general; (c) Exhibitions: Environmental education on air quality in different environments; (d) Results: Environmental education on air quality with individuals exposed or not to air pollutants (particulate matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), ozone (O₃), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), black carbon (BC), ultrafine particles (UFP), nitrogen oxides (NO_x) and biomass fuels) in various environments; and (e) Language: All possible languages were included. The eligibility criteria for this mapping review were based on the PECOS strategy: Population, Exposure, Comparison, Outcome, and Study Design [17] and are described in

Table 2. Criteria for inclusion and exclusion of studies selected for review.

		Inclusion Criteria	Exclusion Criteria
P	Participate	General population	-
E	Exposure	Environmental education	-
C	Comparison	Pollutants, environments, environmental education methods, population and areas studied	-
O	Outcome	Environmental education on air quality in various environments	-
S	Study	Randomized clinical trials, non-randomized clinical trials, cross-sectional, longitudinal studies.	Case reports, conferences, commentaries, letters, and editorials

.

2.4. Data Extraction and Analysis

The authors (AD and RS) performed the search independently and evaluated the eligibility of each article. The discrepancies were resolved by a third researcher (AA). The authors examined all titles and abstracts and reviewed the full texts of the articles that met the predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria (Table 2).

For the analysis and discussion of the results, the following data were extracted: first author and year of publication; countries and cities where the studies were carried out; sample characteristics (sample size, mean age, and age group); exposure (pollutants); study designs; protocols of educational activities related to air quality in human behavior; changes that occurred in human behavior on air quality after the educational activity protocols; changes in air quality after the educational activity protocols. All results were extracted into Microsoft Excel spreadsheets, where the authors evaluated the extracted results in common agreement.

Based on Fernández-Sotos et al. [18], a key methodological aspect of a successful mapping review is the definition of research questions (RQs) to be answered. For this mapping review, we defined five RQs:

RQ 1. How many articles have been published on educational interventions for improvements related to air quality? What are the characteristics of the studies and populations investigated? What is the geographical distribution of the research performed?

RQ 2. What are the methods and protocols of the educational interventions? What are the contexts of the application of educational interventions to improve air quality?

RQ 3. Which studies monitored the air quality in the environments? Which air pollutants and environments were most commonly investigated?

RQ 4. What were the objectives of the educational activities about air quality? What were the themes investigated based on the objectives of the studies?

RQ 5. What are the main outcomes of educational interventions for improving air quality, changing behavior, and acquiring knowledge?

3. Results

Below, the five research questions are answered on the basis of the synthesis of the analyses.

RQ 1. How many articles have been published on educational interventions for improvements related to air quality? What are the characteristics of the studies and populations investigated? What is the geographical distribution of the research performed?

The literature search identified 2416 relevant articles. Of these, 34 full articles were evaluated for eligibility, and 24 studies were selected for synthesis (Figure 1).

The oldest study found was published in 1977 by Force et al. [19]. Since then, 24 published studies have investigated the topic until 2024 (see Supplementary Materials Table S3 for a full list of selected studies). The year with the highest number of published studies was 2024, with five studies, followed by 2016 and 2023 with three studies, and 2020, 2021, and 2022 with two studies per year (Figure 2). The study with the longest duration was Suliman et al. [20], which lasted from 2016 to 2019.

Twelve articles studied populations of students and university students, two studies investigated pre- or postnatal women and members of health teams, and the remaining studies investigated participants who lived close to highways and who lived in cities with high levels of pollution. Only two studies did not report the populations investigated.

The countries where the topic was researched were China with 5 studies, followed by the USA with 4 studies, South Korea, Australia, Korea, and India with 2 studies each, and one study was performed in each of Brazil, Colombia, Spain, Italy, Iran, Sudan, and Uganda (Figure 3). Only one study did not report the country where the survey was conducted.

Of the 24 studies included, 20 are experimental studies, two are observational, one is quasi-experimental, and one is descriptive.

The studies included a total of 7.289 participants; one study did not report the specific number of participants, but reported that 10 families participated in the research, and 3 studies did not report the number of participants. The study with the largest sample was Marín et al. [21] with 1676 participants. The majority of studies had a sample of men and women; 21 studies, two studies included only women, and one study did not report the sex of the participants. The age range of the participants varied, with the youngest sample, Alexandar & Poyyamoli [22], being 12 to 14 years of age. The study with the oldest sample was Hine et al. [23], which included individuals aged between 18 and 85 years. Ten studies did not report these data.

The studies presented a total of 123 keywords. In Figure 4, we present the keywords with the highest frequencies. The keywords were categorized by theme according to their frequency of use in the studies: environmental education (32), air pollution (30), behavior change (12), and health (13). The remaining keywords shown in the figure were used less frequently.

Below, the remaining research questions will be answered based on the synthesis of the analyses.

RQ 2. What are the methods and protocols of the educational interventions? What are the contexts of the application of educational interventions to improve air quality?

Fourteen studies carried out the educational interventions through lectures and classes, six studies delivered information leaflets, two studies used augmented reality for the educational interventions, and one study provided the link and QR Code to the environmental education. The complete description of the methods and protocols of the educational activities used in the studies can be seen in

Table 3. Methods and protocols of the studies that investigated educational activities related to educational interventions to improve air quality.

Author and Year	Method of Educational Activity	Protocol Used in the Educational Activity
Bej et al. [24]	Guided walk in specific locations consisting of roads, food stalls, traffic intersections, etc., with a portable PM2.5 monitor.	On the way, participants were sensitized about the relevant sources by showing them the live PM2.5 data, and detailed explanations were provided. After the walk, a focus group discussion was organized with the participants of the walk to discuss the results.
Griswold et al. [25]	Collected the air quality data from each community, and volunteers participated in focus groups led by their community organizer (CO).	Residents of the community were trained to use low-cost air sensors and acted as air monitoring volunteers. All were trained by individual project community organizers (COs), trained by technical partners with experience in air monitoring.
Marín et al. [21]	School environmental project	Colombia has a legal framework that requires schools to develop school environmental projects (PRAE is the Spanish acronym for ‘Proyecto Ambiental Escolar’) to raise environmental awareness and increase environmental education.
Kim et al. [26]	Videos, messages, conversations, and pamphlets	Experimental group: From the second to the fourth day, videos and messages of encouragement were sent to the experimental group three times through smartphones, between 8 am and 10 am every day. On the fifth day, feedback was provided to the experimental group through an open chat room. Control Group: received a written pamphlet (traditional educational material) on the first day.
Bhang & Huh [10]	Lectures and use of augmented reality (AR)	Lecture addressing the basic concepts of fine powder, its causes and dangers to the human body; Presentation and introduction of the AR application, covering the process of fine dust entering the human body, its path and danger to each organ, the time it takes for fine dust to be introduced and expelled from the body, and the principle of fine dust removal using artificial rain.
Cho et al. [27]	Meetings divided into blocks using a flipped learning method, puzzle model, discussion learning, inquiry-type learning, experiential and practical learning.	Blocks that had the understanding of the PM as their educational content (Blocks 1–2); address and prevent the adverse effects of PM exposure (Blocks 3–8). To address these contents, videos, question games, applications, masks, board games, posters and booklets were used.
Jiang et al. [28]	PowerPoint Presentation	The moderator through text, images, and video presented the dangers of air pollution and measures to improve air quality and listed some cases of air pollution, such as straw burning and exhaust gas emissions. In addition to informing about the dangers of air pollution and the urgency of air pollution control through images and data explanations.
Cartwright et al. [29]	Delivery of educational materials in the form of flipcharts, posters, and leaflets to prenatal and postnatal women.	The material included topics addressing biomass smoke sources, health hazards, improving and placing stoves, improving kitchen ventilation, improving fuels, and avoiding other sources of smoke (e.g., smoking tobacco and burning garbage).
Caracci et al. [6]	Information campaign provided by researchers and a handout of leaflets	The researchers provided reliable information, explaining to the occupants the aspects related to indoor air quality (IAQ) and exposure to airborne particles. To this end, they used an illustrative leaflet to reinforce the information provided. The researchers also showed the occupants the trends of airborne particles measured during the reporting period, in order to make them aware of the effect of the sources of particles generated indoors (e.g., cooking) on their exposure.
Chiang et al. [30]	Group teaching with health education intervention classes	The health education intervention classes were divided into 4 units. The first unit was a cognition-promoting course that presented the evolution of the Choshui River, the cause and timing of river dust episodes, and the bodily damage caused by dust episodes. Unit two taught students about the use of personal protection (e.g., the use of correct masks and PM2.5 soundproof clothing) and indoor and outdoor protective equipment. Unit three fostered student confidence through metanoia and sentence composition. Unit four taught the importance of loving one’s hometown and environmental protection.
Suliman et al. [20]	Factsheets	Deliveries of fact sheets to explain the effects of Household Air Pollution (PAH). The women in the experimental group also received a short instruction on the health effects of smoke-filled air associated with indoor cooking. In bimonthly meetings at women’s centers, the study director reviewed the negative health effects of breathing smoky air and the symptoms of chronic CO poisoning.
Huh et al. [31]	Environmental education based on Augmented Reality was divided into two lessons. Lesson 1: Lecture and discussion; Lesson 2: Lectures, practices, discussions and wants.	Lesson 1: Fine dust concepts, measurement method, the relationship between fine dust and climate, risk to human health, and emergency response. Lesson 2: Step 1: AR Application Operation and AR Application Practice; Step 2: Experimentation of educational content on fine dust using AR.
Mazutti et al. [32]	Link and QR Code of a website containing real-time air quality monitoring and pollution information were distributed on the university campus.	Information presented on the website: Main sources of air pollutants: carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2); Major damage to the health of the brain, heart, lungs, vision, and respiratory system as a result of exposure to polluted air; Engagement strategies to reduce air pollutant emissions, both by citizens and decision-makers.
Li et al. [33]	Package leaflet	Brochures addressing Carbon Dioxide Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS); How CO2 is sequestered underground; Whether CCUS is secure and reliable; Main challenges of CCUS.
Wang et al. [34]	Questionnaire with information	Questionnaires conducted in two parts by the interviewers contained information on the health hazards of air pollution and fog to the health of respondents (part 1) and concise information on the facts, causes and health impacts of air pollution (part 2).
Chavis et al. [35]	PowerPoint presentation and posters (online) and face-to-face meeting	Part I: Key topics covered how surgical smoke is generated, the components of surgical smoke, and current evidence on the harmful effects of surgical smoke. Part II: addressed information on current best practices for the management of surgical smoke. Part II: practical experiences and review of the information presented in Parts I and II
Mohsen et al. [36]	Classes, films, pictures and field trips.	The environmental education presented consisted of basic and simple knowledge about air pollution, discharge of pollutants into water and soil, waste risks, water and energy saving methods, importance of recycling, green spaces, prevention of damage to natural resources, etc. The environmental risks at school were also presented to the students.
Alexandar & Poyyamoli [22]	Interactive classroom sessions, field exhibits, lab experiments, hands-on exercises, small group projects, and in-service learning opportunities.	basic concepts of air pollution; main air pollutants, their sources and impacts on plants, animals, ecosystems and materials, and control measures.
Hine et al. [23]	Flyers, a DVD and fridge magnets	Participants in the education conditions received: (1) pamphlets produced by the Firewood Association of Australia (FAA) and the Australian Home Heating Association (AHHA) providing “best practice” advice for buying, storing and burning firewood (e.g., buying wood early to let it cure, storing in a well-ventilated place, avoiding burning dry wood, use sticks and air vents fully when lighting a fire, etc.), (2) a DVD created by AHHA that provided a visual demonstration of these best practices, (3) an information leaflet produced by the NSW Department of Health describing negative health impacts associated with wood smoke pollution; and (4) a fridge magnet outlining six operational tips for reducing smoke from a wood heater, designed to be used as a memory reminder.
Dorevitch et al. [37]	Community workshops	Community educators used a poster that displayed the AQI colors and descriptors (good, moderate, unhealthy for sensitive groups), as well as information on appropriate behavior changes for each color/descriptor. Residents were made aware of: highway reconstruction, that highway reconstruction can negatively affect local air quality, that increased air pollution can be harmful to health, that up-to-date information on local air quality is available at community sites and through the alert notification system, and that local air quality information should be used to modify plans for outdoor activities.
Cunningham & Stubbs [38]	Presentation of a model to bring together teachers, scientists, and primary and secondary school students to develop active, innovative, and research-based learning materials for environmental education.	Preparation of educational materials.
Celma et al. [39]	Introductory presentation of Tarragon’s Virtual Air Pollution Monitoring Network, a set of Virtual Reality worlds for low-cost PC-based systems.	The educational aspects of this system are supported by the presented software based on Virtual Reality, intended to present and disseminate the efforts of the Autonomous Government in the protection of air quality.
Force et al. [19]	2 Workshop	The first Workshop consisted of four half-day presentations on the following topics: (1) basic information on the nature of air pollution, (2) harmful effects of air pollution on health, (3) costs of air pollution reduction, and (4) regulation. The second Workshop addressed the following topics: (1) monitoring and reduction in emissions, assessment of the local situation, (2) a discussion on citizen participation and the right process related to air quality, and (3) effects and costs of poor air quality and the need for further studies in the area to assess costs more accurately.

.

The study by Bhang & Huh [10] used an Augmented Reality application to address the process of fine dust entering the human body, its path, the danger to each organ, the time it takes for fine dust to be introduced and expelled from the body, and the principle of removing fine dust using artificial rain.

Huh et al. [31] carried out environmental education based on augmented reality, with the operation of the application and practice. Hine et al. [23] conducted a study using SmartBurn as a method of educational activity.

RQs 3. Which studies monitored the air quality in the environments? Which air pollutants and environments were most commonly investigated?

Of the 24 studies included, six monitored air quality. The study of Bej et al. [24] measured the concentration of PM_2.5 using Plantower PMS5003 equipment. Kim et al. [26] monitored PM_2.5, PM₁₀, carbon dioxide, and volatile organic compounds with PiCOHOME equipment (PMM-130, Brilliant & Company). Caracci et al. [6] used Testo DiSCmini, DustTrak™ DRX (model 8534, TSI Inc.), and Testo—Ambient CO₂ probes to collect the concentration of particle number concentration (PNC) and carbon dioxide indoors and outdoors. Suliman et al. [20] evaluated the concentration of carbon monoxide in closed environments using Masimo Rad-57 CO-oximeters, which measure the saturation of oxygen and carbon monoxide in the blood as an indirect indicator of exposure to CO. Mazutti et al. [32] measured the concentrations of carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide from outdoor environments using sensors from the company AlphaSense: CO-B4 (CO Sensor), SO₂-B4 (SO₂ Sensor), and NO₂-B43F (NO₂ Sensor). Griswold et al. [25] monitored air quality, but did not specify the pollutants or the equipment used, although the study refers to low-cost air sensors. The study of Hine et al. [23] did not use any equipment, but monitored the visible smoke emissions from the chimney of each household.

Regarding the most commonly investigated air pollutants, PM stood out (11 studies), followed by CO in four studies, CO₂ in three studies, SO₂ in two studies, NO_X in three studies, and household air pollutants from biomass smoke generated by stoves, pollution produced by steel mills, and surgical fumes, in one study each. Five studies did not report the type of pollutant investigated.

Nine (37.5%) studies were conducted only outdoors, seven (29.17%) indoors, and only two (8.33%) studies were conducted both outdoors and indoors. Six (25%) studies did not mention the environment investigated.

RQs 4. What were the objectives of the educational activities about air quality? What were the themes investigated based on the objectives of the studies?

The objectives of the studies included in this Mapping Review are presented in

Table 4. Scientific evidence related to educational interventions to improve air quality: objectives and themes of the selected studies.

Author and Year	Environment	Objectives	Theme
Kim et al. [26]	Indoor	To identify and investigate the effects of environmental health literacy-based interventions on indoor air quality (IAQ) and urinary concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and cotinine in women.	Improving knowledge
Cartwright et al. [29]	Indoor	Improve understanding of the long-term impact of this education programme from the perspective of midwives, village health team members and mothers, taking into account the wider implementation of the programme in rural Uganda.	Improving knowledge
Chiang et al. [30]	Indoor	To investigate the effectiveness of protective equipment (sandproof plastic cover and air purifier) installed outside/inside classrooms on students’ lung function and to evaluate the health education program to prevent the adverse effects of exposure to episodes of river dust.	Tackling air quality
Suliman et al. [20]	Indoor	To determine whether an intervention to reduce household air pollution (PAH), which included health education and a new well-ventilated cooking place, would reduce PAH exposure, decrease carbon monoxide levels, and improve the health of women and children in Port Sudan, Sudan.	Tackling air quality
Huh et al. [31]	Indoor	This research studied whether the adoption of augmented reality (AR) technology can effect change in student perspectives with a view to improving the attitudes of passive students regarding fine dust-related matters.	Improving knowledge
Chavis et al. [35]	Indoor	Reduce the presence of surgical smoke in the perioperative setting by increasing the use of surgical smoke evacuation devices from the initial use rate by 100%. Develop an educational program to meet the needs of employees and influence a sustained increase in the use of surgical devices for smoke evacuation in the operating room.	Tackling air quality
Mohsen et al. [36]	Indoor	This study aimed to identify and assess the environmental risks (such as emission of pollutants into the air, discharge of pollutants into water and soil, energy consumption, etc.) in Shohadaye Kork female primary school in Kashan, Iran, and also to investigate the role of environmental education in the promotion of students’ environmental knowledge.	Knowledge and Confrontation
Bej et al. [24]	Indoor and outdoor	Introduce a new awareness tool to improve the understanding of air pollution among citizens.	Improving knowledge
Caracci et al. [6]	Indoor and outdoor	To assess the IAQ awareness of 10 households through questionnaire surveys and an investigation of an eco-feedback strategy based on awareness campaigns	Tackling air quality
Griswold et al. [25]	Outdoor	Report on a larger community environmental education project involving participatory action research, which involved community residents in Chicago learning how to monitor local air quality using low-cost air sensors.	Improving knowledge
Mazutti et al. [32]	Outdoor	This paper aims to report an air quality monitoring experience with a focus on the smart and learning campus and discuss its implications for the university context about promotion to education for sustainable development (ESD) and sustainable development goal (SDG) integration.	Improving knowledge
Li et al. [33]	Outdoor	Investigate the environmental impacts that a national public survey indicates are real and more worrying. Investigate the attitudes of educated people towards environmental management policy and responsible government departments. Submit proposals for environmental management of Carbon dioxide capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) based on the above points.	Tackling air quality
Wang et al. [34]	Outdoor	Investigate the facts of public environmental awareness in a typical Chinese city after the severe smog in early 2013. The relationship between residents’ willingness to pay (DAP) to tackle air pollution and their knowledge of health pollution risk was also explored.	Knowledge and Confrontation
Alexandar & Poyyamoli [22]	Outdoor	The main Objectives of this research were to foster the acquisition and transfer of the necessary knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour with reference to the protection of the environment and sustainable development in selected high schools in the union territory of Puducherry region and Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu.	Knowledge and Confrontation
Hine et al. [23]	Outdoor	Compare two very different types of interventions to reduce air pollution generated by firewood dwellings: (1) a multimedia educational campaign highlighting the negative health effects of exposure to wood smoke and providing advice on best practices for operating wood heaters, and (2) a “technological solution” that requires little change in attitude or behaviour by households using firewood.	Tackling air quality
Dorevitch et al. [37]	Outdoor	Develop a community air quality education program for people with asthma. To assess the capacity of the educational programme to increase knowledge about air quality in the short term and again one year later. To report on the strengths and limitations of the AQI education program, with the hope that communities, investigators, and government agencies will be able to promote environmental health education in at-risk communities at large, with the ultimate goal of reducing asthma morbidity and mortality.	Knowledge and Confrontation
Cunningham & Stubbs [38]	Outdoor	Present a model for bringing together teachers, scientists, and primary and secondary school students to develop active, innovative, and research-based learning materials for environmental education.	Improving knowledge
Force et al. [19]	Outdoor	The overall objective of this environmental education activity was to provide citizens of the Steubenville-Weirton area with an impartial environment to gain a better understanding of the problems associated with air quality in their region.	Improving knowledge
Marín et al. [21]	Does not report	To assess knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) regarding air pollution and health, and to determine the factors associated with these KAP in children and adolescents.	Knowledge and Confrontation
Yang & Fang [40]	Does not report	Examine the effects of environmental education programs in China on perceived air and water quality, waste reduction, and reduced energy consumption.	Improved air quality
Bhang & Huh [10]	Does not report	Create an augmented reality (AR)-based educational program focusing on fine dust and investigate whether this program leads to positive changes in awareness and attitudes towards fine dust.	Improved air quality
Cho et al. [27]	Does not report	Develop and verify the effectiveness of the “school education program for the confrontation of particulate matter (SEPC_PM)”	Tackling air quality
Jiang et al. [28]	Does not report	(1) in the situation of considering information interventions, explore changes in public preferences for five attributes of air quality improvement policies, including urban green coverage rate, foggy days, morbidity, policy delay, and calculate the public’s EPH in air quality improvement, and (2) after incorporating the information interventions in the EC, to demonstrate whether information interventions have an impact on public preferences and EPD and to explore whether the degree of certainty of respondents regarding their choice and response to protest for the improvement of air quality will change, further analysing the reasons for the increase or decrease.	Improving knowledge
Celma et al. [39]	Does not report	Introductory presentation of Tarragon’s Virtual Air Pollution Monitoring Network, a set of Virtual Reality worlds for low-cost PC-based systems.	Knowledge for air quality

. Based on the classification of the objectives by themes, we can observe that of the 24 objectives, the most commonly investigated are related to improving knowledge of air quality in nine studies, followed by addressing air quality in seven studies, and knowledge and coping with air quality in five studies. Other classifications of the objectives by themes can be seen in Table 4.

RQs 5. What are the main results of educational interventions for improving air quality, changing behavior, and acquiring knowledge?

The study of Bej et al. [24] monitored air quality during a guided walk in various indoor and outdoor environments, exploring different sources of pollution. The results indicated a greater sense of understanding of air pollution among participants. Participants observed that the highest concentrations of PM_2.5 indoors were in the kitchen of homes, while outdoors, the highest concentration was observed when participants stopped at a busy traffic intersection.

In the study of Caracci et al. [6], the quality-quantitative analysis revealed that a simple eco-feedback strategy based on awareness campaigns (i.e., reliable information campaign and experimental campaign) is able to increase the occupants’ IAQ awareness and reduce their exposure to different metrics of airborne particles, even during warm seasons (i.e., when higher exposures are expected in homes).

Suliman et al. [20] reported that after the start of an intensive program on reducing domestic air pollution, the CO levels of the women in the study group and the control group fell from 17.8% and 17.4% to normal levels of 2.9% and 3.1%, respectively. The women in the control group may have benefited from the education and modeled behavior of the people in the study group.

The results of Mazutti et al. [32] showed how the decrease in air quality is related to traffic emissions and how exposing students to a smart and learning environment could teach them about education for sustainability.

Hine et al. [23] revealed that education and SmartBurn were both associated with a significant reduction in wood smoke emissions during the post-intervention period. Follow-up analyses indicated that education reduced emissions by improving the operating practices of wood-burning heaters, but not by increasing perceptions of health risk.

More information on the main outcomes of educational interventions in behavior change and knowledge acquisition can be found in

Table 5. Scientific evidence from studies on the main outcomes of educational interventions: improving air quality, changing behavior, and acquiring knowledge.

Author and Year	Environments	Improved Air Quality
Kim et al. [26]	Indoor	The concentrations of PM10, PM2.5, CO2, and total VOCs in the experimental group were significantly decreased compared to those in the control group.
Suliman et al. [20]	Indoor	Education and a place to cook outside resulted in lower CO levels in Sudanese women and children.
Caracci et al. [6]	Indoor and outdoor	PNC, PM10, and CO2 measured during culinary events after the information campaign (i.e., during the follow-up period) were statistically lower than the baseline values: the occupants of this house were able to obtain a relative reduction from the median values equal to 50%, 35% and 28% for PNC, PM10 and CO2, respectively.
Hine et al. [23]	Outdoor	Significant reduction in household emissions of wood smoke.
	Behavior change
Cartwright et al. [29]	Indoor	Modification of the cooking place; Changes in kitchen ventilation; Stay away from smoke; They stopped burning their garbage; Changes in lighting from candles or kerosene to solar energy.
Chiang et al. [30]	Indoor	Improvement of cognition and protective behaviors against river dust episodes among students.
Suliman et al. [20]	Indoor	When the new, more intensive education component was introduced, the women in the study began using their rakoobah regularly, and their average CO levels dropped significantly.
Huh et al. [31]	Indoor	The research items with a higher to moderate degree of implementation of activities related to fine dust were: Thoroughly carrying out personal hygiene activities, such as washing hands and brushing teeth; Using air purifiers, humidifiers, etc., to keep the air clean indoors; Closing windows and avoiding outdoor activities on days with a high concentration of fine dust. The degree of implementation was relatively low for the items: Try to reduce the amount of fine dust when you see or take off your gym clothes or during physical education classes; Adjust the commute time to and from school and check if the school is closed; Prepare personal hygiene products such as masks, tissues, and tissues.
Chavis et al. [35]	Indoor	Increased use of equipment that performs smoke evacuation in surgical procedures.
Caracci et al. [6]	Indoor and outdoor	Adoption of manual ventilation and use of exhaust fans during cooking.
Mazutti et al. [32]	Outdoor	The results showed how the decrease in air quality is related to traffic emissions and the fact that exposing students to a smart and learning environment could teach them about education for sustainability.
Wang et al. [34]	Outdoor	Increased willingness to pay (DAP) for respondents’ self-protection.
Alexandar & Poyyamoli [22]	Outdoor	Significant improvement in analytical skills among students in the experimental group compared to the control group in handling air quality monitoring kits and monitoring physicochemical concentration in sampled air. Actions such as planting trees on the school campus and the backyards of houses to protect local air quality.
Hine et al. [23]	Outdoor	Changing the operating practices of wood heaters.
Marín et al. [21]	Does not report	Almost 90% of the students had a positive attitude about implementing taxes to end air pollution, and that the entire population, including themselves, factories, and transport companies, should receive more environmental education. The attitude towards the general population paying taxes to end or reduce air pollution tends to be negative, with 62.4% of students considering that it should be factories and transport companies that should pay these taxes. As for preventive measures, 58.5% never avoided leaving the house due to air pollution, and 54.1% did not close windows and doors at home, with this practice being 1.56 times more common among students from private schools.
Yang & Fang [40]	Does not report	Environmental education programs significantly impacted participants’ perceptions and behaviors related to sustainability. All groups reported improved perceptions of air and water quality, highlighting the success of the programs in raising awareness. Environmental education positively influenced participants’ engagement in conservation practices, energy-reducing behaviors, and public transportation utilization, underscoring the potential of the programs to promote broader sustainable living.
Bhang & Huh [10]	Does not report	Improvements were presented in all items: Verification of weather conditions through broadcasting, internet, etc.; Close windows and avoiding outdoor activities when fine dust levels are high; Personal hygiene; Wearing a mask when going to and from school in conditions of fine and intense dust; Participate in environmental education, such as fine dust, when an opportunity arises; Ventilate the indoor classroom air after the fine dust warning ends; Ventilate indoor household air regularly every day when there is no warning of outdoor fine dust.
Cho et al. [27]	Does not report	Compared to the control group, the intervention group reported significantly higher scores on practices of engaging in health management behaviors to protect against PM, such as: Water and vitamin intake; Body washing after returning home; refraining from going out when the PM concentration is high; and indoor air quality control.
Jiang et al. [28]	Does not report	Increased public willingness to pay for improved air quality.
	Knowledge acquisition
Kim et al. [26]	Indoor	The environmental health literacy (EHL) of the experimental group increased significantly compared to the control group.
Mohsen et al. [36]	Indoor	26 environmental hazards were identified, including 22 acceptable hazards and 4 unacceptable (critical) hazards; 21 of them could be solved directly through proper education. Students’ average environmental test scores rose after education. The environmental management of schools plays an important role in preparing students for environmental education, and the results of this study showed a significant relationship between education and the promotion of environmental awareness in students.
Bej et al. [24]	Indoor and outdoor	The results indicate a greater sense of understanding among participants, and the multidisciplinary nature of the air pollution problem was well communicated. To understand the long-term impact, a survey was conducted after 1 year, which indicated high levels of awareness and behavioral changes among participants.
Griswold et al. [25]	Outdoor	Volunteers developed skills in the use of low-cost air sensors, taught other community members about local air monitoring and air quality, and devised strategies to improve air quality and community health.
Mazutti et al. [32]	Outdoor	The results showed how the decrease in air quality is related to traffic emissions and the fact that exposing students to a smart and learning environment could teach them about education for sustainability.
Li et al. [33]	Outdoor	Ten environmental management policies listed in CCUS received broad recognition from participants, and about half of the participants felt that related government departments should be responsible for environmental management as a priority. The survey also indicates that the most reliable sources through which survey participants obtain information about CCUS are academic journals and textbooks, television, radio and newspapers, expert lectures, and brochures on CCUS demonstration projects.
Dorevitch et al. [37]	Outdoor	Participants were generally able to identify that carbon monoxide, particulate matter, and ozone are air pollutants, while noise is not. Only 32% of participants knew that a day of “sky blue” air is not the way “good” air quality is reported. Approximately 60% of the participants considered that all children should be kept indoors during the reconstruction of the highway, which was scheduled to take place over several years. While 92 percent of respondents knew that air pollution can make asthma worse, only 73 percent knew that pollution can trigger heart attacks. Basic knowledge about air quality information was limited in the community studied. Air quality education workshops led by community educators can increase knowledge about outdoor air quality and its short-term health impact.
Celma et al. [39]	Outdoor	Presentation of an overview of the theme Air Pollution Monitoring of the Tarragon Virtual Network, an interactive and fully immersive worldwide replica in Virtual Reality of the real Air Pollution Monitoring Network deployed in the Tarragon area. Special emphasis is given to the innovative aspects of the application of Virtual Reality on a low-cost PC platform for educational purposes, making techniques and assimilation of scientific information attractive to the general public.
Force et al. [19]	Outdoor	The evaluations of the workshops indicated that the topics discussed were relevant and informative for the participants. The participants were also satisfied with the experts who contributed with balanced information on the various topics covered.
Marín et al. [21]	Does not report	It was found that 87% of the students perceived themselves as having little or no knowledge about air pollution. A total of 5.3% of the students were familiar with the AQI (Air Quality Index).
Cunningham & Stubbs [38]	Does not report	Production of a variety of educational materials has proven useful in motivating teachers and students to learn about important environmental issues.

.

In Figure 5, we can see that the frequency of the outdoor and indoor environments investigated was similar, but it is possible to note that studies that focused on indoor environments more frequently demonstrated behavior change and reduced pollution levels. Similarly, studies that sought to study outdoor environments more frequently demonstrated behavior changes and the promotion of environmental education among students.

4. Discussion

Our objective with this mapping review was to investigate and analyze the scientific evidence related to educational interventions to improve air quality. To our knowledge, this is the first review to bring together the published evidence on educational activities as a way to collect the state of the art on the subject. Twenty-four studies were selected for review, we then synthesized the results and from them, we answered the questions raised in the present mapping review. At this point, we will discuss the results divided by topics according to the issues addressed.

4.1. Educational Interventions to Improve Air Quality, Characteristics of the Studies and Populations Investigated, and Geographic Distribution of the Research Performed

Only four of the six studies that monitored air quality presented monitoring results after educational activities [6,20,23,26], all of which showed improvement in air quality, demonstrating the effectiveness of environmental education. However, in these four studies, the monitoring of pollutants came from culinary events, evidencing a gap in studies that address environmental education and air quality monitoring in other environments. The populations investigated in the study of Caracci et al. [6] and Hine et al. [23] are household residents. The households in the study of Caracci et al. [6] were located in urban, suburban, and rural areas. The populations investigated in the study Kim et al. [26] and Sulimam et al. [20] are women. However, the first author recruited young women of reproductive age, and the second author recruited women of lower socioeconomic status, with children between 1 and 5 years of age, and who cook with biomass fuels; both researchers recruited and collected the data with the women in their homes.

The choice to investigate women in the studies of Kim et al. [26] and Suliman et al. [20] can be explained by several relevant factors, since in many cultures, women are traditionally more responsible for domestic services and meal preparation [41]. Another important factor is that prolonged exposure to indoor air pollution can result in infertility, premature births, and low birth weight of babies, as well as fatal diseases in children [42,43]. The choice of women of low socioeconomic status may reflect the recognition that these women often have less access to resources to improve cooking and ventilation conditions, resulting in greater exposure to pollutants. This highlights an important issue of social justice and environmental health, considering that low-income populations often face poorer conditions and a higher pollution burden [44].

Another relevant aspect is that both studies recruited the participants in their homes, which suggests a practical approach to understanding real environmental exposure in everyday contexts. This allows for a more accurate assessment of living conditions and cooking practices that affect pollution exposure and the effectiveness of implemented educational and behavioral interventions.

The environmental education methods described in the four articles vary in approach and format, but have the common goal of informing and modifying behaviors related to pollution and air quality. In the study of Kim et al. [26], the experimental group received videos and messages of encouragement via smartphones, while the control group received a traditional pamphlet. Caracci et al. [6] used an illustrative leaflet and particulate matter data in the air to raise awareness among occupants about indoor pollution. Suliman et al. [20] implemented an intensive program, with discussions on household air pollution and weekly visits to ensure the adoption of best practices. In the article by Hine et al. [23], households received one of two different interventions: (1) a multimedia educational campaign highlighting the negative health effects of wood smoke exposure and advice on best practices for operating wood heaters, or (2) a “technological solution” that requires little change in attitude or behavior on the part of households burning wood.

Cooking activities are a significant source of submicron and UFPs in domestic environments. Therefore, adequate ventilation and opening of windows during cooking are strategies adopted in educational programs aimed at health prevention Zhang et al. [45]. In addition to domestic environments, air quality is monitored in a variety of other contexts [46], such as indoor environments for physical exercise and sports [3,47], classrooms [48,49], hospitals [50], offices [51], and health facilities [52]. However, environmental education programs must be adopted to encourage behavioral changes in different populations, areas, environments, and contexts that suffer from exposure to air pollutants.

A good example of poor air quality is in environments such as hospitals and health centers, which pose significant risks to patients, who are generally more vulnerable, as well as to health professionals themselves. Exposure to various indoor pollutants can aggravate existing health conditions and contribute to the spread of infectious diseases, so air quality is crucial for the safety of patients and staff [52,53,54].

Research on air quality and environmental education in places intended for physical activity is limited, but interest in the relationship between pollution and physical activity is growing due to the contrast between the benefits of exercise and the risks of polluted environments [3]. Studies show that the concentration of CO₂ indoors is affected by physical activity, which reduces O₂ and increases CO₂. During moderate exercise, air inhalation can increase up to five times compared to rest [55,56]. With the increase in intense physical activity indoors, it is essential to ensure good ventilation and monitor the capacity of spaces to optimize benefits and reduce health risks.

Regarding the population investigated, most of the participants who received environmental education were students from schools and universities. Schools are environments that need to adopt air quality monitoring simultaneously with educational activities, since the inhalation of particles by children and adolescents is higher than in adults [57] due to higher levels of physical activity, higher basal metabolic rates, and higher ventilation rates [58].

Only one study, Dorevitch et al. [37], aimed to apply educational activities with populations at risk of asthma-related morbidity. The authors demonstrated that educational interventions can help reduce exposure to asthma triggers and improve asthma management. To date, no studies have specifically investigated populations with respiratory problems, such as those with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or cystic fibrosis, in the context of environmental education interventions. This is a promising field of research, since these populations are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of air pollution.

The countries that emit the most air pollution are China, the United States, and India [59]. These countries also presented the largest number of studies included in this review, reflecting the severity of air pollution, which affects not only the health of the population but also the economy of these countries. A notable example is recorded in the study by Hsu et al. [60], which documents how air pollution in China has had significant impacts on the transport sector, leading to the closure of Beijing’s Capital International Airport and the rerouting of hundreds of flights, highlighting the magnitude of the problem and its economic implications. Environmental education studies on air quality are extremely important in these countries, and it is necessary to raise awareness and change attitudes towards practices that contribute to air pollution [61].

According to the World Resources Institute [59], in 2022, the last year for which data are available, the ten countries that emitted the most CO₂ were: China, the United States, India, Russia, Japan, Iran, Indonesia, Germany, Saudi Arabia, and South Korea. It can be observed that, among these ten countries responsible for the highest CO₂ emissions in the world, 50% do not present research that contributes to the theme of this review.

CO₂ emissions from human activities have reached all-time highs. Recent data indicate that in 2022, global CO₂ emissions were 182 times higher than in 1850, during the Industrial Revolution [59].

By educating people about the causes and consequences of air pollution, it is possible to promote behavioral changes related to energy consumption, motor vehicle use, and agricultural and industrial practices, among other aspects that affect air quality [62]. Similar results were found in the systematic review by Ardoin et al. [63], who analyzed 105 studies and found that most research in environmental education generates indirect results, such as increased knowledge and intention to change, while few measure direct results, such as observed actions or environmental indicators. In addition, environmental education in countries where the population suffers the most due to air pollution could be a way to encourage the active participation of the community in identifying and solving air quality problems in the areas where they live. For example, the countries that have emitted the most pollutants in recent years: China, the United States, India, Russia, Japan, Iran, Indonesia, Germany, Saudi Arabia, and South Korea, as demonstrated above. This can include air quality monitoring, stricter public pollution control policies, and engagement in sustainable practices. Raising awareness of the importance of air quality can drive technological innovation in sectors that are the largest emitters of pollutants, such as transportation, energy, and industry. Increased awareness leads to the development and adoption of cleaner and more efficient technologies [61,64,65].

4.2. Methods and Protocols for Educational Interventions, Air Pollutants, and the Most Commonly Investigated Environments

The methods adopted in the majority of the studies were through expository and dialogued classes, lectures, and the delivery of information leaflets [6,10,19,20,21,22,23,26,27,28,29,30,31,33,35,36,37,38,39]. Studies that used augmented reality as a tool for educational intervention stand out. Recent studies highlight the importance of using innovative and effective methods to promote awareness of the seriousness of pollution and the urgency of concrete actions. A systematic review conducted by Hajj-Hassan et al. [66] emphasizes the use of digital tools to improve awareness of sustainability, showing that technologies such as virtual reality can increase concern about the sustainability of the planet.

The study by Bej et al. [24] stands out for introducing an innovative awareness tool, which consists of a guided walk to monitor air quality in different environments, both indoors and outdoors. This approach is in line with the literature on hands-on learning, which suggests that directly applying concepts in real-world contexts can improve understanding and retention of information compared to theoretical learning. Hands-on experience allows individuals to utilize concepts more effectively, reinforcing learning through practical application [67].

The method used by Kim et al. [26] evidences the effectiveness of educational activities by comparing the population in the study, divided into two samples: a control and an experimental group. Comparative analysis of indoor air quality measurements before and after the intervention revealed a significant reduction in concentrations of PM₁₀, PM_2.5, CO₂, and total VOCs in the experimental group compared to the control group. In addition, the results confirmed a significant increase in environmental health literacy in the experimental group compared to the control group.

Regarding the most commonly investigated air pollutants, PM stood out, followed by CO and CO₂, domestic air pollutants from biomass smoke generated by stoves, pollution produced by steel mills, and surgical smoke. These pollutants are consistently the subject of studies due to their adverse effects on human health and the environment [68,69].

It is worth noting that domestic pollutants from the burning of biomass in stoves are sources of UFPs, which are even more harmful to health than PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 particles [70]. While PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 particles are associated with respiratory and cardiovascular problems due to their ability to penetrate deep into the lungs, UFPs are so small that they can reach even more into lung tissues, even entering the bloodstream. This can result in systemic damage and additional adverse health effects, leading to genetic mutations and neurological problems [70,71,72].

Nine studies conducted their searches only in outdoor environments, highlighting ongoing concern for air quality in open spaces, such as urban areas, industrial areas, and regions close to significant pollution sources such as roads and industries. Research in these areas and environments is necessary to understand air quality variations in different regions and climatic conditions, which facilitates the identification of critical areas and the development of effective strategies to mitigate pollution [73]. Additionally, the emphasis on outdoor environments is driven by the need for regulation and public policymaking. Thus, governments and environmental organizations often use this information to guide decisions about regulations and pollution control strategies [60,73,74].

Indoor environments were investigated in seven of the studies included in this review, reflecting concerns about indoor air quality, as we spend 90% of our time in these environments [11]. Indoor air quality often reflects not only incoming outdoor pollution but also indoor sources of pollution, the main sources being indoor biomass burning for cooking and heating [75], as has already been noted in the studies included in this review. Thus, it is worth highlighting the importance of ventilation and air filtration strategies to improve occupational and residential health [76,77].

4.3. Knowledge Acquisition and Behavior Changes

In eleven studies, it was possible to observe the awareness of the air quality of the investigated populations after the environmental education interventions [19,21,24,25,26,32,33,36,37,38,39]. However, it can be considered that, in studies that did not evaluate the knowledge of the investigated population, knowledge was acquired indirectly, as positive changes were observed in both behavior and air quality.

Only the study by Marín et al. [21], which aimed to evaluate the knowledge of the students participating in the School Environmental Project, did not obtain positive results. The study showed that 87% of students perceived themselves as having little or no knowledge about air pollution, and only 5.3% were familiar with the Air Quality Index (AQI).

We highlight the importance of the literature in addressing this topic, given that the study conducted by Li et al. [33] demonstrates that the most reliable sources of information for research participants include academic journals, textbooks, television, radio, newspapers, lectures by experts, and brochures. However, television, radio, and newspapers should play an active role in raising awareness on the subject since they are the main means of information accessible to the population. Thus, these information sources would be a way to potentially improve knowledge about the population’s exposure to pollutants and foster more sustainable attitudes [63].

In the fifteen articles analyzed, it was possible to observe several changes in behavior related to environmental awareness and protection, as well as adaptation to pollution conditions. Overall, the implementation of environmental education programs had a significant positive impact, improving participants’ perceptions and behaviors regarding sustainability and air quality [6,10,20,21,22,23,27,28,29,30,31,32,34,35,40]. These results can be compared with the findings of Isenaj et al. [78], in a study conducted in public schools in Pristina, Kosovo, an educational intervention produced significant gains in knowledge and perception about air pollution, but changes in pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors were modest and not statistically significant between the experimental and control groups. In contrast, our study showed clear improvements not only in perceptions but also in participants’ behaviors, suggesting that more interactive and practical strategies, such as the use of digital technologies, guided walks, and direct pollutant monitoring, can enhance behavioral changes.

The students demonstrated a positive attitude toward paying taxes to combat air pollution and advocated for factories and transport companies to bear these costs. However, preventive practices, such as avoiding leaving the house or closing windows, were not widely adopted, especially among private school students [21]. Environmental education contributed to an increase in pollution awareness and encouraged conservation behaviors and public transportation use [34].

In addition, awareness of the relationship between traffic and air quality was amplified by smart learning environments [32], and actions such as tree planting were undertaken to improve local air quality [22]. While some practices, such as changing commuting times and wearing masks, still presented low adherence, continued efforts in education and adaptation demonstrated significant progress in environmental protection and public health [21].

It is important to highlight that environmental education is not a one-time event, but that it needs to be a continuous process of learning and action, since it helps people understand that air quality is a dynamic problem, requiring constant vigilance and participation to be solved effectively. As the study of Caracci et al. [6] pointed out, because the evaluation of the effectiveness of the eco-feedback strategy conducted was a short-term evaluation, behavioral changes need to be verified in the long term. However, according to the answers collected, the families investigated reported a greater propensity to maintain new habits in the long term (90%).

4.4. Changes in Air Quality

The four studies that monitored air quality revealed significant improvements after implementing educational activities, thus highlighting the effectiveness of environmental education. It is important to note, however, that three of the four studies carried out the monitoring of pollutants generated by cooking activities.

Kim et al. [26] sent videos and messages of encouragement to the experimental group three times through smartphones, every day from the second day to the fourth day of the experiment. On the fifth day, feedback was provided to the experimental group through an open chat room. The control group received a written pamphlet (traditional educational material) only on the first day. The results revealed that the concentrations of the pollutants PM₁₀, PM_2.5, CO₂, and total VOCs of the group that received environmental health literacy were significantly decreased compared to those of the control group.

Caracci et al. [6] showed that, after an information campaign, the concentration of suspended particles (PNC), PM₁₀, and CO₂ during cooking events decreased significantly compared to the levels recorded before the campaign. Specifically, in one household, median concentrations of these pollutants were reduced by 50% for PNC, 35% for PM₁₀, and 28% for CO₂. These reductions were achieved by implementing only the simplest strategies recommended by the campaign, such as opening the windows and using the hood while cooking, without the need for air purifiers or mechanical ventilation systems.

In the experiment of Suliman et al. [20], women in the control and experimental groups, enrolled in 2016, had CO levels of 17.8% and 17.4%, respectively. One year later, CO levels varied among participants in the experimental group, with some showing decreases and others increases, while levels in the control group remained stable. An intensive home air pollution education program was then implemented for the women in the experimental group. In 2019, the final year of the study, the CO levels of women in the experimental and control groups reduced to normal values, 2.9% and 3.1%, respectively. It is possible that the women in the control group also benefited from the education about household air pollution and the observed behavior of the participants in the experimental group.

Hine et al. [23] experimented to compare the effectiveness of two strategies in reducing wood smoke emissions. The first strategy consisted of educating users of wood-burning heaters about the health risks of smoke pollution and providing practical guidance for the proper operation of heaters. This approach aimed to reduce emissions by offering a motivational incentive (health risk) and specific behavioral guidelines. The second strategy involved the implementation of SmartBurn, a simple, low-cost technology solution designed to directly reduce emissions without requiring major changes in user motivation or behavior. The results revealed that education and Smartburn significantly reduced wood smoke emissions, producing modest effects of similar magnitude. There was no significant interaction between education and SmartBurn, suggesting no significant performance advantage associated with combining the two interventions.

This use of technology applied to environmental education proves to be efficient, reflecting principles similar to those discussed by Zhu et al. [79] in their smart education framework, which emphasizes the integration of technological tools to create interactive, personalized learning environments capable of engaging participants practically.

Therefore, it is essential to conduct new experimental studies that integrate environmental education with air quality monitoring in various contexts. These surveys can demonstrate the effectiveness of environmental education in different scenarios as air quality varies. An example is the study carried out by Bej et al. [24], who proposed a guided walk to monitor air quality in different environments. During the walk, participants followed a specific route that included roads, food stalls, and traffic intersections, using a portable PM_2.5 monitor. By touring different areas, participants were able to observe variations in air quality in real time and identify sources of pollution. This approach allows participants to recognize locations with higher levels of harmful emissions, helping them make more informed decisions about their exposure to polluted air.

Although the primary aim of this mapping review was to gather and describe the existing literature, it is important to reflect on the broader implications of these findings. The results indicate that educational interventions can not only improve knowledge and promote individual behavioral changes but also serve as strategic tools for educational policies that incorporate environmental health promotion from early education through higher education. Moreover, by revealing that socially vulnerable populations (such as low-income women or communities exposed to polluting fuels) are disproportionately affected, the studies analyzed highlight the need to integrate an environmental justice perspective into air pollution mitigation policies, ensuring equity in access to healthy environments. Finally, the diversity of contexts and methodologies observed suggests that future interventions should adopt a transdisciplinary approach, combining education, public health, technology, and environmental policy to enhance the effectiveness and sustainability of educational actions across different scales.

4.5. Limitations and Future Studies

Although 24 studies have been published since 1977, with a greater emphasis on publications in recent years, it is necessary to develop the production of scientific evidence related to educational interventions to improve air quality, because, despite the number of publications on the subject, there is a vast gap in the knowledge, in different environments, both indoors and outdoors.

Huge limitations were observed in the development of environmental education methods, especially considering the populations that suffer the most from the harmful effects of air quality, such as children, older adults, pregnant women, and people who are affected by COPD, cystic fibrosis, or other respiratory diseases. Studies that are not only observational in nature need to be carried out, in relation to the points raised, but that are also well-developed experimental studies, with methodological rigor.

The present mapping review design allows us to have a comprehensive view of the results found; however, it is limited in the specificity of populations, regions, and methods of interventions for environmental education. These need to be explored objectively in new systematic reviews, using quality assessment of the studies that enter the reviews, providing the possibility of verifying the power of the evidence.

4.6. Innovations, Study Strengths, and Practical Applications

After an extensive search in the literature and in international databases, we found that the present mapping review is the first to be developed in the literature on the present topic. In addition to this extremely relevant character, considering that air pollution is a global problem, and based on the evidence presented, little has been studied about it, and the evidence is limited. The current study is innovative by bringing these data to light based on the existing evidence, and thus demonstrating the need for investment in new studies to help solve global public health problems, as already mentioned, specifically caused by air pollutants.

We performed a deep, current, and unprecedented analysis of the main results of educational interventions in improving air quality, changing behavior, and acquiring knowledge and scientific evidence related to educational interventions to improve air quality.

When we consider that we are living in a Post-Pandemic scenario, there is a need for evidence Diotaiuti et al. [80], with the objective of preventing contamination by any pollutant or even a virus, we realize the real importance of further study of possible educational interventions to improve air quality. This is particularly important considering the knowledge of the negative impact that the COVID-19 pandemic has brought to several countries, and which still has repercussions. Thus, the present mapping review demonstrates several strengths and practical applications that can be replicated and even improved in new studies.

5. Conclusions

We conclude that the scientific evidence related to educational interventions to improve air quality identifies the need for expansion of these programs to different environments, both indoors and outdoors. We conclude with the main points of the findings:

• Based on the studies, it is possible to observe that the main sources of outdoor pollution are automobiles, and educational programs aim to reduce individuals’ exposure to pollution;
• On the other hand, the main sources of indoor pollutants are related to food cooking, highlighting the need for environmental programs focused on changing individuals’ behavior;
• On the other hand, with the results of the included 24 studies, we can see that the realization of interventions with environmental education can be promising for the improvement of air quality;
• However, the studies are heterogeneous and need to be explored in their contexts for future decision-making regarding the interventions to be chosen to improve air quality. These are ways to promote behavior change and knowledge acquisition to different populations, to raise awareness about the importance of studying and understanding the impacts of air pollutants.

Based on the evidence we mapped, government officials and leaders responsible for new forms of public policies at a global level can appropriate this new knowledge to be put into practice, or reformulate existing ones to change the reality of regions that are affected by high levels of air pollution.