Snow-Cover Area and Runoff Variation under Climate Change in the West Kunlun Mountains
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Hydrological and Meteorological Data
2.3. Observation Data
2.4. Snow-Cover Data
- (1)
- Images of the Terra and Aqua snow covers were projected and formatted by MODIS Reprojection Tool (MRT);
- (2)
- Images of Terra and Aqua in the same period were synthesized by extracting snow-cover images of the basin and recoding the original classification codes [55];
- (3)
- On the basis of the watershed glacier boundary, the cloud pixels of the glacier areas were identified as snow pixels to obtain the final sequence of the snow image data (Figure 4).
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Variation Characteristics of Climate on North Slope of West Kunlun Mountains
3.2. Variation Characteristics of Snow Cover on North Slope of West Kunlun Mountains
3.3. Runoff Variation Characteristics on North Slope of West Kunlun Mountains
4. Discussion
4.1. Dynamics of Abrupt Change in Runoff Depth
4.2. Climate Change Impact on Runoff Depth
4.3. Uncertainty Analysis
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
List of Acronyms
Acronym | Full Name |
AWS | Automatic Weather Station |
DEM | Digital Elevation Models |
GLOFs | Glacier Lake Outburst Floods |
HS | Hydrological Station |
KRK | Karakax River Basin |
KRY | Keriya River Basin |
M–K | Mann–Kendall Test |
MODIS | Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer |
MOD10A2 | MODIS Product |
MYD10A2 | MODIS Product |
MRT | MODIS Reprojection Tool |
NMS | National Meteorological Station |
NSWKM | North Slope of the West Kunlun Mountains |
SCA | Snow Cover Area |
SCF | Snow cover fraction |
SRTM | Shuttle Radar Topography Mission |
TR | Tarim River |
TP | Tibetan Plateau |
UIB | Upper Indus River Basin |
YRK | Yarkant River Basin |
YUK | Yurungkax River Basin |
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Basin | Station | Type | Longitude (°) | Latitude (°) | Elevation (m) | Basin Area (km2) | Glacier Area (km2) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
YRK | Kaqun | HS | 37.98 | 76.90 | 1370 | 46,635 | 5145 |
Kulukelangan | HS | 37.73 | 76.22 | 2000 | 29,397 | 4462 | |
Tashkurgan | NMS | 37.77 | 75.23 | 3090 | |||
Shenxianwan | AWS | 35.63 | 77.68 | 4953 | |||
Shache | NMS | 38.43 | 77.27 | 1231 | |||
KRK | Kala | AWS | 36.42 | 77.72 | 4482 | ||
Wuluwati | HS | 36.87 | 79.43 | 1850 | 19,891 | 1920 | |
Pishan | NMS | 37.62 | 78.28 | 1375 | |||
Tuoman | NMS | 37.03 | 78.88 | 2145 | 18,119 | 1919 | |
YUK | Yurung | AWS | 36.25 | 79.80 | 3670 | ||
Tongguziluoke | HS | 36.82 | 79.92 | 1650 | 14,820 | 2921 | |
Hotan | NWS | 37.13 | 79.93 | 1375 | |||
Heishan | NWS | 36.25 | 79.77 | 2460 | 10,948 | 2877 | |
KRY | Yutian | NWS | 36.85 | 81.65 | 1422 | ||
Keriya | HS | 36.47 | 81.47 | 1880 | 8312 | 682 |
Date | OCC | Two-Satellite Synthesis | Entrance-Glacier Boundary | FR | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TECP | CC | OE | UE | TECP | CC | OE | UE | |||
2005145 | 43.07 | 42.49 | 39.05 | 0.39 | 3.05 | 28.85 | 28.84 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 71.34 |
2008097 | 34.98 | 33.41 | 29.17 | 0.70 | 3.54 | 37.22 | 37.10 | 0.12 | 0.00 | 70.63 |
2009129 | 35.60 | 61.45 | 55.32 | 2.26 | 3.87 | 25.80 | 25.76 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 87.25 |
2010129 | 36.22 | 56.58 | 50.68 | 0.23 | 5.67 | 23.96 | 23.92 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 80.54 |
2011089 | 34.10 | 49.14 | 46.12 | 0.85 | 2.17 | 27.27 | 27.24 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 76.41 |
Mean | 48.61 | 44.07 | 0.89 | 3.66 | 28.62 | 28.57 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 77.23 |
Basin | Monthly Mean Minimum Runoff | Monthly Mean Maximum Runoff | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Nov | Dec | Jun | Jul | Aug | |
YRK | 7.9 | 19.0 | 30.2 | 38.1 | 3.2 | 0.0 | 1.6 | 0.0 | 34.4 | 65.6 |
KRK | 67.7 | 21.0 | 1.6 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 9.7 | 1.6 | 62.3 | 36.1 |
YUK | 29.5 | 36.1 | 19.7 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 14.8 | 0.0 | 45.9 | 54.1 |
KRY | 23.0 | 26.2 | 14.8 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.6 | 34.4 | 0.0 | 54.1 | 45.9 |
Basin/Correlation Coefficient | R-T | R-T|P | R-P | R-P|T | T-P |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
YRK | 0.360 * | 0.356 * | −0.063 | −0.023 | −0.156 |
KRK | −0.116 | −0.207 | −0.367 * | −0.400 ** | −0.198 |
YUK | 0.110 | 0.107 | 0.067 | 0.063 | 0.046 |
KRY | 0.250 | 0.277 * | 0.411 *** | 0.426 *** | −0.006 |
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Ma, X.; Yan, W.; Zhao, C.; Kundzewicz, Z.W. Snow-Cover Area and Runoff Variation under Climate Change in the West Kunlun Mountains. Water 2019, 11, 2246. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112246
Ma X, Yan W, Zhao C, Kundzewicz ZW. Snow-Cover Area and Runoff Variation under Climate Change in the West Kunlun Mountains. Water. 2019; 11(11):2246. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112246
Chicago/Turabian StyleMa, Xiaofei, Wei Yan, Chengyi Zhao, and Zbigniew W. Kundzewicz. 2019. "Snow-Cover Area and Runoff Variation under Climate Change in the West Kunlun Mountains" Water 11, no. 11: 2246. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112246