Legionellosis and Recent Advances in Technologies for Legionella Control in Premise Plumbing Systems: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Legionella and Legionellosis
2.1. Outbreaks of Legionellosis
2.2. Causative Agent of Legionellosis: Legionella
2.3. Species, Serogroups, and Strains of Legionella
3. Current Technologies for Control of Legionella in Premise Plumbing Systems
3.1. Chemical Treatment Technologies
3.1.1. Chlorine-Based Disinfection
3.1.2. Copper-Silver Ionization (CSI)
3.1.3. Ozonation
3.2. Physical Treatment Technologies
3.2.1. Thermal Inactivation
3.2.2. Media Filtration
3.3. Challenges in Physical and Chemical Treatments
4. Emerging Treatment Technologies
4.1. Ultraviolet (UV) Irradiation
4.2. UV Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
4.3. Innovative Point-of-Use (POU) Filters
5. Summary
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Legionella Strains * | Time to 4-Log Reduction (Min.) | |
---|---|---|
0.2 mg/L Free Chlorine | 0.5 mg/L Free Chlorine | |
L. pneumophila serogroup 1 lab strain | Not achieved | 8 |
L. pneumophila serogroup 1 environmental strain | Not achieved | 4 |
L. pneumophila serogroup 7 lab strain | 9 | 2 |
L. pneumophila serogroup 8 environmental strain | 20 | 3 |
L. longbeachae lab strain | 11 | 3 |
Condition | Number of Positive Legionella Sites (%) | Number of Negative Legionella Sites (%) | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Before chlorination | 43 (21.1) | 161 (78.9) | <0.001 |
With continuous hyperchlorination | 23 (5.5) | 393 (94.5) |
Treatment | Positive Samples | |
---|---|---|
Before Treatment | After Treatment | |
Monochloramine System | ||
- positive N (%) | 22/22 (100%) | 8/84 (9.5%) |
- mean CFU/L (range) | 2.2 × 104 (1.0 × 102 – 9.5 × 105) | 3.3 × 102 (25 – 4.9 × 103) |
Control Sytem | ||
- positive N (%) | 84/85 (98.8%) | |
- mean CFU/L (range) | 1.0 × 104 (25 – 1.3 × 106) |
Different Parameters for Inactivation of Legionella Pneumophila Serogroup 1 | |||
---|---|---|---|
pH | Temperature (°C) | Ozone Concentration (µg/mL) * | Log Inactivation |
7.2 | 25 | 0.21 | 2.37 |
7.2 | 35 | 0.13 | 2.21 |
7.2 | 45 | 0.13 | 2.55 |
8.0 | 25 | 0.20 | 2.45 |
8.9 | 25 | 0.14 | 3.28 |
Percent Positivity | CFU/mL | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|
Before ozonation | (66/100) 66% | 10.9 ± 17 | 0.12 |
After ozonation | (67/120) 56% | 5.2 ± 9.7 |
Legionella Strain * | Time to 4-Log Reduction (Min) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
50 °C/R2 | 55 °C/R2 | 60 °C/R2 | 65 °C/R2 | 70 °C/R2 | |
L. pneumophila serogroup 1 lab strain | 117/0.80 | 10/0.92 | 2/0.90 | 0.8/0.88 | 0.9/0.79 |
L. pneumophila serogroup 1 environmental strain | 46/0.84 | 8/0.98 | 3/0.83 | 1.4/0.90 | 0.6/0.82 |
L. pneumophila serogroup 7 lab strain | 40/0.97 | 25/0.96 | 3/0.76 | 0.6/0.87 | 1.2/0.77 |
L. pneumophila serogroup 8 environmental strain | 68/0.97 | 16/0.89 | 4/0.94 | 0.8/0.90 | 0.7/0.99 |
L. longbeachae lab strain | 15/0.94 | 2/0.88 | Not achieved | Not achieved | Not achieved |
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Carlson, K.M.; Boczek, L.A.; Chae, S.; Ryu, H. Legionellosis and Recent Advances in Technologies for Legionella Control in Premise Plumbing Systems: A Review. Water 2020, 12, 676. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12030676
Carlson KM, Boczek LA, Chae S, Ryu H. Legionellosis and Recent Advances in Technologies for Legionella Control in Premise Plumbing Systems: A Review. Water. 2020; 12(3):676. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12030676
Chicago/Turabian StyleCarlson, Kelsie M., Laura A. Boczek, Soryong Chae, and Hodon Ryu. 2020. "Legionellosis and Recent Advances in Technologies for Legionella Control in Premise Plumbing Systems: A Review" Water 12, no. 3: 676. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12030676