The Influence of Design and Operational Factors on the Removal of Personal Care Products by Constructed Wetlands
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Removal Mechanisms of PCPs in CWs
3.2. Influence of Design and Operational Factors of CWs on the Removal of PCPs
3.2.1. Depth
3.2.2. Area
3.2.3. HLR
3.2.4. OLR
3.2.5. HRT
3.3. Influence of Physicochemical Parameters of CWs on the Removal of PCPs
3.3.1. pH
3.3.2. Temperature
3.3.3. Effluent DO
3.4. Effect of Plants and Support Matrix of CWs on the Removal of PCPs
3.4.1. Effect of Plants
3.4.2. Effect of Support Matrix
3.5. Effect of Seasonality on the Removal of PCPs
4. Conclusions
- The design and operational parameters are important governing factors in CWs performance for the removal of PCPs. HLR and HRT showed a significant correlation with the removal efficiency of three out of six studied PCPs, whereas, depth and area were significantly correlated with the removal efficiency of two of the studied PCPs, and OLR was significantly correlated with the removal efficiency of one of the studied PCPs. Nevertheless, the correlation was not significant with the removal efficiency of the same PCPs, which demonstrates that the removal efficiency of PCPs is not affected by only one design and operational parameter but directly or indirectly influenced by all parameters. For instance, the removal efficiency of PCPs showed a significant correlation with three factors such as methylparaben (area, HLR, and OLR) and oxybenzone (depth, HLR, and HRT); two factors such as tonalide (depth and HRT); and one factor such as galaxolide (HRT), methyl dihydrojasmonate (area), and triclosan (HLR).
- The temperature and effluent DO exhibit a significant correlation with the removal efficiency of most of the studied PCPs (three in both cases), which indicates the importance of DO and temperature for the enhancement of biodegradation, and subsequent removal of PCPs, which are better removed under aerobic conditions. Temperature and effluent DO both showed a significant correlation with the removal efficiency of galaxolide and tonalide. However, the correlation was not significant with the removal efficiency of the same PCPs, which is evident in the case of methyl dihydrojasmonate (temperature) and triclosan (effluent DO). Although pH did not show a significant correlation with the removal efficiency of any of the studied PCPs, the available evidence indicates that pH is an important parameter because it controls several biotic processes (e.g., plants development, nitrification, and heterotrophic production) and abiotic processes (e.g., the attachment of ionizable PCPs to soil/sediment via ion exchange).
- The effect of plants in CWs is explicit by direct uptake of PCPs (methylparaben, propylparaben, and methyl dihydrojasmonate), as well as indirect positive effects such as enhancement in aerobic biodegradation, which was considered as one of the major removal mechanisms of nine out of 15 studied PCPs. The contribution of plants (direct and indirect) in CWs is also evident by the higher removal efficiency of PCPs (galaxolide, tonalide, methyl dihydrojasmonate, and triclosan) in planted CWs compared with unplanted CWs.
- The enhanced performance of CWs can be achieved by using the substrate material of high adsorption capacity, especially for those PCPs (triclosan, cashmeran, galaxolide, tonalide, and oxybenzone), which are mainly removed by adsorption onto the substrate. Furthermore, the substrate material providing a larger surface area for microbial growth and higher oxygen is also suggested to improve the removal efficiency of PCPs, which are mainly removed via aerobic biodegradation pathways (acesulfame, methylparaben, propylparaben, methyl dihydrojasmonate, and sulizobenzone).
- The comparatively higher removal efficiency of most of the examined PCPs in summer than in winter might be due to the contribution of more removal mechanisms such as biodegradation, plant uptake, and photodegradation at warm temperature. On the contrary, in winter only adsorption/sorption processes are more dominant at low temperature. The removal efficiency of almost all of the studied PCPs demonstrated seasonal differences, but significant difference in the removal efficiency during summer and winter was established in the case of galaxolide and methyl dihydrojasmonate.
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Design, Operational, and Physicochemical Parameters | References |
---|---|
Operational Factors | |
Hydraulic loading rate | Matamoros et al. [5]; Ávila et al. [6,7]; Dai et al. [8] |
Organic loading rate | Matamoros et al. [9] |
Hydraulic retention time | Matamoros et al. [10]; Matamoros and Salvadó [1]; Ávila et al. [6]; Herrera-Cárdenas et al. [11]; Vymazal et al. [4]; Vystavna et al. [12]; Salcedo et al. [13] |
Physicochemical Parameters | |
pH | Hijosa-Valsero et al. [2,3] |
Temperature | Hijosa-Valsero et al. [2,3]; Ávila et al. [14]; Matamoros et al. [9,15]; Vymazal et al. [4] |
Dissolved oxygen | Hijosa-Valsero et al. [2]; Ávila et al. [6,7,14]; Chen et al. [16]; Kahl et al. [17]; Li et al. [18]; Vymazal et al. [4]; Nivala et al. [19] |
Planted and Unplanted CWs | Hijosa-Valsero et al. [2,3,20]; Reyes-Contreras et al. [21]; Carranza-Diaz et al. [22]; Salcedo et al. [13]; Button et al. [23] |
Role of Support Matrix | Ávila et al. [6]; Salcedo et al. [13]; Xie et al. [24]; Nivala et al. [19] |
Effect of Seasonality (summer and winter) | Matamoros et al. [10,15]; Hijosa-Valsero et al. [2,3]; Reyes- Contreras et al. [21] |
No. of Categories | Category | Personal Care Products |
---|---|---|
1 | Artificial sweetener | Sucralose, Acesulfame |
2 | Preservatives | Methylparaben, Propylparaben |
3 | Insect repellent | N, N-diethyl-3-methyl benzoylamide, N, N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide, N, N-diethyl-meta-toluamide |
4 | Antiseptics | Triclosan, Triclocarban |
5 | Fragrances | Cashmeran, Celestolide, Galaxolide, Methyl dihydrojasmonate, Tonalide |
6 | Flame retardants | Tributyl phosphate, Triphenyl phosphate, Tris (2-chloroethyl) phosphate |
7 | Sunscreen agents | Hydrocinnamic acid, Oxybenzone, Sulisobenzone |
Design, Operational, and Physicochemical Parameters | FWSCW | HFCW | VFCW | HCW |
---|---|---|---|---|
Number of CWs | 24 | 57 | 12 | 38 |
Number of studies | 8.0 | 15 | 8.0 | 19 |
Scale of application | Lab, Pilot, Full | Lab, Pilot, Full | Lab, Pilot | Lab, Pilot, Full |
Type of treatment | Primary, Secondary, Tertiary | Primary, Secondary, Tertiary | Primary, Secondary | Primary, Secondary, Tertiary |
Depth (m) | 0.8 ± 0.9 | 0.5 ± 0.1 | 0.8 ± 0.1 | 0.8 ± 0.4 |
Area (m2 PE−1) | 12 ± 8 | 6.6 ± 5.7 | 4.3 ± 3.4 | 9.0 ± 6.9 |
HLR (m3 m−2 d−1) | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 0.5 ± 1.1 | 0.07 ± 0.03 | 0.1 ± 0.3 |
OLR (g COD m−2 d−1) | 15 ± 18 | 32 ± 20 | 27 ± 20 | 24 ± 30 |
HRT (days) | 6.1 ± 9.4 | 4.9 ± 4.6 | 3.2 ± 3.2 | 4.7 ± 7.8 |
pH | 6.9 ± 0.3 | 7.4 ± 0.6 | 7.4 ± 0.7 | 7.4 ± 0.4 |
Temperature (°C) | 13 ± 6 | 17 ± 6 | 19 ± 2 | 15 ± 6 |
Effluent DO (mg L−1) | 1.4 ± 2.4 | 1.7 ± 2.2 | 5.4 ± 3.0 | 2.0 ± 1.9 |
Class/PCPs | Possible Removal Mechanism | References | Dominant Removal Mechanism * |
---|---|---|---|
Artificial sweeteners | |||
Acesulfame | Biodegradation (aerobic) | Kahl et al. [17]; Nivala et al. [19] | Biodegradation (aerobic) |
Preservatives | |||
Methylparaben | Plant uptake | Anjos et al. [31]; Petrie et al. [32] | Plant uptake; Biodegradation (aerobic); Photodegradation ** |
Biodegradation (aerobic) | Matamoros et al. [9,15]; Anjos et al. [31]; Chen et al. [33] | ||
Photodegradation | Chen et al. [33] | ||
Hydrolysis | Chen et al. [33] | ||
Volatilization | Chen et al. [33] | ||
Propylparaben | Plant uptake | Anjos et al. [31] | Plant uptake; Biodegradation (aerobic); Photodegradation ** |
Biodegradation (aerobic) | Anjos et al. [31] | ||
Photodegradation | NA | ||
Insect repellents | |||
N, N-diethyl-meta-toluamide | Biodegradation (aerobic) | Li et al. [18]; Sgroi et al. [34] | Biodegradation (anaerobic) ** |
Biodegradation (anaerobic) | Yi et al. [35]; Sgroi et al. [34] | ||
Antiseptics | |||
Triclosan | Adsorption | Carranza-Diaz et al. [22]; Chen et al. [16]; Liu et al. [36]; Xie et al. [24]; Button et al. [23]; Wang et al. [37] | Adsorption; Biodegradation (aerobic); Photodegradation |
Sorption | Ávila et al. [7]; Vystavna et al. [12] | ||
Biodegradation (aerobic) | Ávila et al. [6,7,38]; Zhang et al. [26]; Zhao et al. [39]; Chen et al. [16]; Liu et al. [36]; Li et al. [18]; Vymazal et al. [4]; Xie et al. [24]; Button et al. [23]; Chen et al. [33]; Wang et al. [37] | ||
Biodegradation (anaerobic) | Park et al. [40]; Vystavna et al. [12] | ||
Photodegradation | Matamoros and Salvadó [1]; Zhang et al. [26]; Ávila et al. [7,38]; Matamoros et al. [15]; Li et al. [18]; Vymazal et al. [4]; Vystavna et al. [12]; Francini et al. [41]; Chen et al. [33] | ||
Plant uptake | Zhang et al. [26]; Liu et al. [36]; Dai et al. [8]; Li et al. [18]; Vymazal et al. [4]; Francini et al. [41]; Xie et al. [24] | ||
Triclocarban | Sorption | Zhu and Chen [42]; Vymazal et al. [4] | Sorption ** |
Fragrances | |||
Methyl dihydro-jasmonate | Biodegradation (aerobic) | Matamoros et al. [5,15]; Hijosa-Valsero et al. [2,3,20,43]; Reyes- Contreras et al. [21] | Biodegradation (aerobic); Plant uptake |
Biodegradation (anaerobic) | Hijosa-Valsero et al. [2] | ||
Plant uptake | Hijosa-Valsero et al. [2,20]; Reyes-Contreras et al. [21]; Salcedo et al. [13] | ||
Retention processes | Hijosa-Valsero et al. [20] | ||
Cashmeran | Sorption | Matamoros and Salvadó [1] | Sorption **; Adsorption ** |
Adsorption | NA | ||
Galaxolide | Plant uptake | Hijosa-Valsero et al. [2,20]; Reyes-Contreras et al. [21]; Salcedo et al. [13] | Sorption; Adsorption |
Adsorption | Hijosa-Valsero et al. [2,20]; Reyes-Contreras et al. [21] | ||
Retention processes | Hijosa-Valsero et al. [20] | ||
Sorption onto organic surfaces | Matamoros et al. [5,15]; Hijosa-Valsero et al. [2,3]; Matamoros and Salvadó [1]; Carranza-Diaz et al. [22] | ||
Tonalide | Plant uptake | Hijosa-Valsero et al. [2,20]; Reyes-Contreras et al. [21] | Sorption; Adsorption |
Adsorption | Hijosa-Valsero et al. [2,20]; Reyes-Contreras et al. [21] | ||
Retention processes | Hijosa-Valsero et al. [20] | ||
Sorption onto organic surfaces | Matamoros et al. [5,15]; Hijosa-Valsero et al. [2,3]; Matamoros and Salvadó [1]; Ávila et al. [6,14,38]; Carranza-Diaz et al. [22] | ||
Photodegradation | Ávila et al. [7,38] | ||
Flame retardants | |||
Tributyl phosphate | Biodegradation | Matamoros et al. [15] | Sorption **; Biodegradation (aerobic) ** |
Sorption | NA | ||
Triphenyl phosphate | Biodegradation | Matamoros et al. [15] | Biodegradation (aerobic) **; Sorption ** |
Sorption | NA | ||
Tris (2-chloroethyl) phosphate | Recalcitrant to biodegradation | Matamoros and Salvadó [1]; Matamoros et al. [9,15] | Sorption ** |
Sorption | NA | ||
Plant uptake | NA | ||
Sunscreen agents | |||
Oxybenzone | Biodegradation (aerobic) | Matamoros and Salvadó [1]; Ávila et al. [6,7,14] | Adsorption **; Biodegradation (aerobic); Sorption |
Sorption | Matamoros and Salvadó [1] | ||
Adsorption | NA | ||
Sulisobenzone | NA | NA | Biodegradation (aerobic) ** |
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Ilyas, H.; Hullebusch, E.D.v. The Influence of Design and Operational Factors on the Removal of Personal Care Products by Constructed Wetlands. Water 2020, 12, 1367. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12051367
Ilyas H, Hullebusch EDv. The Influence of Design and Operational Factors on the Removal of Personal Care Products by Constructed Wetlands. Water. 2020; 12(5):1367. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12051367
Chicago/Turabian StyleIlyas, Huma, and Eric D. van Hullebusch. 2020. "The Influence of Design and Operational Factors on the Removal of Personal Care Products by Constructed Wetlands" Water 12, no. 5: 1367. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12051367
APA StyleIlyas, H., & Hullebusch, E. D. v. (2020). The Influence of Design and Operational Factors on the Removal of Personal Care Products by Constructed Wetlands. Water, 12(5), 1367. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12051367