Contamination of Surface Water and River Sediments by Antibiotic and Antiretroviral Drug Cocktails in Low and Middle-Income Countries: Occurrence, Risk and Mitigation Strategies
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area and Sample Collection
2.2. Chemicals and Standards
2.3. Sample Cleanup and Pre-Concentration
2.4. Instrumental Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Instrumental Analysis Results
3.2. Occurrence of API Cocktails in the Effluent, SPM, Surface Water and River Sediments
4. Discussion
4.1. Cocktails of APIs in the Natural Environment within Low- and Medium-Income Countries
4.2. Risk of APIs in the Environment
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sample | pH | Temp (°C) | EC (dS/m) | TDS (ppm) | TSS (mg L−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Effluent | 7.88 | 30.2 | 5610 | 3.73 | 72.8 |
Surface water | 6.36 | 27.6 | 1140 | 2.86 | 66.4 |
Target Compound | RT a | Precursor Ion [M + H]+ (m/z) (CV) b | Quantifier Ion (m/z) (CE) c | Qualifier Ion (CE) |
---|---|---|---|---|
3TC | 1.5 | 229.9 (17) | 112.0 (18) | 95.0 (29) |
ZDV | 2.3 | 268.2 (16) | 127.0 (17) | 110.1 (25) |
NVP | 4.1 | 267.2 (40) | 226.2 (29) | 198 (29) |
CIP | 2.2 | 332.1 (34) | 288.0 (19) | 314.1 (19) |
TMP | 2.2 | 291.1 (34) | 123.0 (19) | 230.0 (19) |
NOR | 2.1 | 320.3 (30) | 276.0 (18) | 302.0 (25) |
SMX | 5.1 | 254.0 (28) | 156.0 (18) | 108.0 (17) |
API | ILIS | r2 | % Recovery (RSD) | DF (%) | LOQ ng L−1 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
NOR | (2H8)-CIP | 0.996 | 92.6 (3.2) | 100 | 12 |
TMP | (2H9)-TMP | 0.999 | 111.3 (4.1) | 100 | 9 |
CIP | (2H8)-CIP | 0.993 | 84.3 (8.3) | 100 | 10 |
SMX | (2H4)-SMX | 0.997 | 101 (7.2) | 100 | 17 |
3TC | (13C2H2 15N2)-3TC | 0.993 | 98.8 (3.7) | 100 | 15 |
ZDV | (13C2H3)-ZDV | 0.988 | 98.7 (19.4) | 100 | 53 |
NVP | (2H4)-NVP | 0.989 | 87.7 (9.3) | 100 | 19 |
Compound | Effluent Aqueous Phase | Effluent SPM Phase | Water µg L−1 | Sediments µg kg−1 | PNEC [15] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
µg L−1 | µg kg−1 | Upstream 500 M | Downstream 500 M | Upstream 500 M | Downstream 500 M | µg L−1 | |
NOR | 4.2 (0.8) | 82,267 (559) | 1.6 (0.4) | 4.9 (1.2) | 776 (22) | 248 (35) | 0.5 |
TMP | 15.8 (1.1) | 3080 (845) | 3.8 (1.2) | 4.4 (1.5) | 11 (3.2) | 90 (19) | 0.5 |
CIP | 5.3 (0.6) | 5017 (344) | 2.5 (0.9) | 2.8 (1.1) | 4125 (236) | 1275 (67) | 0.064 |
SMX | 956.4 (9.4) | 23,448 (1959) | 96.9 (4.6) | 142.6 (8.3) | 542 (13) | 896 (25) | 16 |
3TC | 847.1 (25.3) | 69,681 (5824) | 219.6 (16.9) | 228.3 (11) | 491 (18.2) | 107 (12) | n.a |
ZDV | 1.4 (1) | 3336 (119) | 2.1 (1.3) | 1.1 (0.9) | 510 (40) | 118 (18) | n.a |
NVP | 9.5 (2.2) | 3214 (146) | 0.9 (0.4) | 2.3 (1) | 95 (14) | 101 (11) | n.a |
Category | Compound | Sample | Concentration Range µg L−1 | Country | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Antibiotics | Sulfamethoxazole | surface waters | <LOQ to 9.64 | Ghana | [31] |
surface waters | <LOQ to 49.56 | Kenya | |||
surface waters | 0.511 to 53.83 | Mozambique | |||
surface waters | 0.0033 to 10.57 | South Africa | |||
surface waters | 11.25 | Kenya | [32] | ||
effluent/surface water | <MQL to 0.019 | Egypt | [33] | ||
surface water | <0.01 to 1.5 | Nigeria | [34] | ||
Trimethoprim | surface waters | 0.014 to 1.37 | Ghana | [31] | |
surface waters | <LOQ to 11.38 | Kenya | |||
surface waters | 0.31 to 6.22 | Mozambique | |||
surface waters | 0.004 to 5.88 | South Africa | |||
surface water | 3.35 | Kenya | [32] | ||
surface water | <0.01 to 0.4 | Nigeria | [34] | ||
effluent/surface water | 0.21 to 1.06 | Egypt | [33] | ||
Ciprofloxacin | surface water | 0.51 to 14.33 | South Africa, Ghana, Kenya | [17] | |
ARVDs | Zidovudine | effluent/surface water | n.d. to 5.3 | South Africa | [35] |
effluent | 12.1 to 20.13 | Kenya | [36] | ||
Nevirapine | effluent/surface water | <LOQ to 0.28 | South Africa | [35] | |
effluent | 0.0053 to 3.3 | Kenya | [36] | ||
Lamivudine | effluent/surface water | 0.13 to 20.93 | South Africa | [35] | |
effluent | 0.0325 to 60.68 | Kenya | [36] |
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Kairigo, P.; Ngumba, E.; Sundberg, L.-R.; Gachanja, A.; Tuhkanen, T. Contamination of Surface Water and River Sediments by Antibiotic and Antiretroviral Drug Cocktails in Low and Middle-Income Countries: Occurrence, Risk and Mitigation Strategies. Water 2020, 12, 1376. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12051376
Kairigo P, Ngumba E, Sundberg L-R, Gachanja A, Tuhkanen T. Contamination of Surface Water and River Sediments by Antibiotic and Antiretroviral Drug Cocktails in Low and Middle-Income Countries: Occurrence, Risk and Mitigation Strategies. Water. 2020; 12(5):1376. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12051376
Chicago/Turabian StyleKairigo, Pius, Elijah Ngumba, Lotta-Riina Sundberg, Anthony Gachanja, and Tuula Tuhkanen. 2020. "Contamination of Surface Water and River Sediments by Antibiotic and Antiretroviral Drug Cocktails in Low and Middle-Income Countries: Occurrence, Risk and Mitigation Strategies" Water 12, no. 5: 1376. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12051376