Closing Water Cycles in the Built Environment through Nature-Based Solutions: The Contribution of Vertical Greening Systems and Green Roofs
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Wicked Problem of Water
- Closing the water cycle at the building scale;
- Embodied energy in the provision of water;
- Technical facilities for greywater treatment at the building scale;
- NBS_u for greywater treatment at the building scale;
- Policies and regulation to support water reuse.
2.2. Green Roofs and Vertical Greenery System Water Use Based on LCA Studies
2.3. Simulation Case Study
2.3.1. Calculating Rainwater Run-Off Availability
2.3.2. Estimating Greywater Availability
2.3.3. Simulating Evapotranspiration of VGS
2.3.4. Case Study Buildings from Copenhagen, Berlin, Lisbon, Rome, Istanbul, and Tel Aviv
3. Results
3.1. The “Wicked Problem” of Water
3.1.1. Closing the Water Cycle at the Building Scale
3.1.2. Embodied Energy in the Provision of Water
3.1.3. Technical Facilities for Greywater Treatment at the Building Scale
3.1.4. Nature-Based Solutions for Greywater Treatment at the Building Scale
3.1.5. Policies and Regulations to Support Water Reuse
3.2. NBS Units Considered: Focus on “Building Greening” Systems
3.2.1. Vertical Greening Systems (VGS)
3.2.2. Green Roofs (GRs)
3.2.3. Vegetated Pergolas
3.3. Materials for Green Roofs and Vertical Greening Systems: A LCA Approach
3.3.1. Life-Cycle Inventory: Materials
3.3.2. Life-Cycle Inventory: Water
3.3.3. LCA Studies: Sample Findings
3.3.4. Building Greening Horizons: Areas for Improvement
3.4. Simulation Case Study
3.4.1. ET0vert and Precipitation
3.4.2. Run-Off Reduction Potentials
3.4.3. Greywater Management Potentials
3.4.4. Optimized RO-Irrigation Scenario
3.4.5. Full Greywater and Run-Off Irrigation Scenario
4. Discussion
4.1. Simulation Case Study
4.2. Structural Issues
4.3. Ecosystem (Dis)Services
4.4. Future-Proof NBS Units
4.5. Policy Framework
5. Conclusions
- Based on the results obtained from a broad cross-section of cities in Europe, a vertical greening system could be a realistic option to manage on-site greywater and utilize rainwater captured on the roof of a typical residential building.
- The effectiveness of VGS for these purposes can only be understood based on the particular climate conditions of the urban site, most notably as a function of solar exposure that heavily impacts the water loss due to evapotranspiration.
- The potential of VGS must be evaluated with respect to the architectural design of a building, which can limit the vertical area that can absorb and evaporate water, as well as the horizontal area available for rainwater capture.
- The use of greywater for irrigation was shown to have clear benefits, as it can fill in deficits in available rainwater runoff, which would otherwise induce stress in the plants and potentially make VGS untenable. Therefore, policies should encourage and incentivize the on-site collection and distribution of greywater.
- The sustainability of water management, using circular systems, depends on the scale, and our findings reveal limitations in implementation within the scope of a single building, due to the available quantities of both runoff and greywater, and the relative area of VGS. Therefore, it is essential to consider this type of nature-based solution at the larger urban scale of a residential quarter, for instance, where mutual benefits can be made by sharing space or water from one building to other buildings, as well as outdoor green spaces in the vicinity.
- Considering the different possibilities of implementation, our case study results represent new approaches to more integrative urban settings, when compared to traditional building-based solutions.
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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City | Climate (2) | Typical Building | Water Availability | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Class (1) | P | T | P-ET Oct-Mar Apr-Sep | Ground | Facade | Window | v/h | O | GW Capita | GW Facade | RO Facade | ||
mm/a | °C | mm | ---------------m2------------- | (-) | inh/m2 | L/inh d | ---L/m2 d--- | ||||||
Copenhagen | Dfb | 614 | 9.4 | 151 | −206 | 980 | 3206 | 1408 | 3.27 | 0.044 | 51 | 0.69 | 0.37 |
Berlin | Dfb | 585 | 10.3 | 118 | −238 | 166 | 440 | 132 | 2.65 | 0.065 | 63 | 1.54 | 0.43 |
Rome | Csa | 605 | 17.8 | 135 | −644 | 1302 | 3996 | 813 | 3.07 | 0.029 | 90 | 0.85 | 0.41 |
Lisbon | Csa | 571 | 17.4 | 126 | −791 | 237 | 407 | 142 | 1.72 | 0.021 | 81 | 0.99 | 0.71 |
Istanbul | Csa | 546 | 16.0 | −18 | −840 | 231 | 310 | 132 | 1.34 | 0.170 | 58 | 7.35 | 0.82 |
Tel-Aviv | Csa | 506 | 21.5 | −171 | −1090 | 165 | 330 | 66 | 2.00 | 0.040 | 58 | 1.16 | 0.57 |
Water Source | Primary Energy Drivers | Energy Consumption in kW h/m3 | |
---|---|---|---|
Range | Average | ||
Groundwater (distribution included) | Pumping | 0.27–1.30 | ≈0.5 |
Surface Water | Pumping | 0.5–4.0 | |
Brackish Water | Reverse osmosis | 1.2–4.0 | ≈1.5 |
Seawater | Reverse osmosis | 2.5–10.0 | ≈3.5 |
Catchment, Conveyance, and Treatment | Distribution | Combined Energy for Water Provision | |
---|---|---|---|
Country | --------------------------------------------kW h/m3------------------------------------------- | ||
Germany | 0.5–0.7 a | ||
Brandenburg | 0.43 d | 0.11 d | 0.54 |
Denmark | 0.2 a–0.6; 0.43 b | ||
Copenhagen | 0.3 b | ||
Israel | 3.0–3.5 c | 0.4–1 c | 3.4–4.5 |
Istanbul | 1.73 h | ||
Portugal | 0.33 f | 0.33–0.55 g | |
Italy | 0.184–0.45 e | 0.146–0.325 e | 0.330–0.775 e |
Feasible Small-Scale Treatment Technology for Greywater | Analogous Average Energy Consumption [kW h/m3] (From Medium Scale Treatment Plants for Conventional Wastewater Treatment) |
---|---|
Biological stage | |
SMBR | 0.2–4 |
SBR | 0–0.29 |
BR | 0.66 |
Disinfection | |
UV Disinfection | 0.02–0.8 |
RO | 0.56–1.3 |
NBS_u Type | Location | Plant Type | Calculation Method | Water Consumption | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Extensive GR | Antananarivo, Madagascar | Grass | CML Baseline | 96 L/m2 a | [120] | |
Calabria, Italy | Native Mediterranean plant species | precipitation + irrigation − run off | 127 L/m2 149 L/m2 | winter period summer period | [128] | |
Lebanon | Sunflower | IMPACT 2002+ | 15 L/m2 | summer period | [56] | |
Intensive GR | Antananarivo, Madagascar | Grass | CML Baseline | 730 L/m2 a | [120] | |
Puigverd de Lleida, Spain | Sedum, Lampranthus, Delosperma | EI 99 | 4032 L/m2 a | June–August | [124] | |
Pot-based VGS | Delft, Netherlands | Pteropsida | Averaged for whole year | 1 L/m2 d | Planter boxes | [55] |
3 L/m2 d | Felt layers | |||||
Madrid, Spain | Hederahelix stems biomass | ILCD Midpoint | 8 L/m2 d | [115] | ||
Madrid, Spain | Lonicera n. stems biomass | ILCD Midpoint | 2 L/m2 d | [115] | ||
Los Angeles, USA | Liriope muscari | - | 6 L/m2 d | [117] | ||
Portugal | Sedum album | CML 2001 Endpoint approach | 8.7 L/m2 d 340 L/m2 a | Spring and summer Total | [122] | |
VGS | Hong Kong | Peperomiaclaviformis | CML-2001 | 100 L/m2 month | [127] |
City | Water Management Potential | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(a) Solely RO Irrigation | (b) Optimized RO Irrigation | (c) Full RO + GW Irrigation | ||||||
Facade Greened | Evaporated RO | Facade Greened | Evaporated RO | Evaporated GW | Facade Greened | Evaporated RO | Evaporated GW | |
% | % | % | ||||||
Copenhagen | 10 | 35 | 26 | 79 | 11 | 46 | 92 | 41 |
Berlin | 13 | 39 | 64 | 95 | 29 | 87 | 100 | 47 |
Rome | 4 | 17 | 24 | 64 | 21 | 28 | 67 | 27 |
Lisbon | - | - | 28 | 44 | 28 | 28 | 44 | 28 |
Istanbul | 3 | 9 | 100 | 100 | 30 | 136 | 100 | 45 |
Tel-Aviv | - | - | 28 | 60 | 53 | 28 | 60 | 53 |
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Pearlmutter, D.; Pucher, B.; Calheiros, C.S.C.; Hoffmann, K.A.; Aicher, A.; Pinho, P.; Stracqualursi, A.; Korolova, A.; Pobric, A.; Galvão, A.; et al. Closing Water Cycles in the Built Environment through Nature-Based Solutions: The Contribution of Vertical Greening Systems and Green Roofs. Water 2021, 13, 2165. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13162165
Pearlmutter D, Pucher B, Calheiros CSC, Hoffmann KA, Aicher A, Pinho P, Stracqualursi A, Korolova A, Pobric A, Galvão A, et al. Closing Water Cycles in the Built Environment through Nature-Based Solutions: The Contribution of Vertical Greening Systems and Green Roofs. Water. 2021; 13(16):2165. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13162165
Chicago/Turabian StylePearlmutter, David, Bernhard Pucher, Cristina S. C. Calheiros, Karin A. Hoffmann, Andreas Aicher, Pedro Pinho, Alessandro Stracqualursi, Alisa Korolova, Alma Pobric, Ana Galvão, and et al. 2021. "Closing Water Cycles in the Built Environment through Nature-Based Solutions: The Contribution of Vertical Greening Systems and Green Roofs" Water 13, no. 16: 2165. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13162165
APA StylePearlmutter, D., Pucher, B., Calheiros, C. S. C., Hoffmann, K. A., Aicher, A., Pinho, P., Stracqualursi, A., Korolova, A., Pobric, A., Galvão, A., Tokuç, A., Bas, B., Theochari, D., Milosevic, D., Giancola, E., Bertino, G., Castellar, J. A. C., Flaszynska, J., Onur, M., ... Nehls, T. (2021). Closing Water Cycles in the Built Environment through Nature-Based Solutions: The Contribution of Vertical Greening Systems and Green Roofs. Water, 13(16), 2165. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13162165