Relationship between Dynamics of Modern Glaciers of the Mt. Munkhkhairkhan (Mongolian Altai) and Climate
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data Source
2.2.1. Meteorological Data
2.2.2. Satellite Data
2.3. Methodology
2.3.1. Mann–Kendall (MK) Test
2.3.2. Innovative Trend Analysis Method
2.3.3. Sen’s Slope Estimator Test
2.3.4. Methodology to Calculate Glacial Area Changes
3. Results
3.1. Glacial Dynamics
- I.
- 1990–2000: The first-decade glacier melting was intense (0.4 km2 per year). The total area of glaciers decreased from 36.2 to 31.3 km2—4.9 km2/10 years.
- II.
- 2000–2010: A period of steadily increasing glacier melting and decreasing glacier area. Compared to 2008, there was a sharp decrease in area in 2010, but there was a period with a steady decrease up to 2002 (31.3–28.5 km2). Over 10 years the glacier area decreased by 4.5 km2 (0.45 km2 per year).
- III.
- 2010–2015: Glacier area changes were relatively stable, with low glacier melting (0.3 km2 per year). The period 2010–2014 corresponds to a period of increased precipitation and the greatest decrease in air temperature (Figure 5). In 2008, the rainfall was 126.8 mm, and in 2010, it almost doubled to 231.9 mm; this situation was maintained until 2015. However, the air temperature dropped sharply from −3.2 °C to −5.52 °C, and the average temperature was −3.3 °C until 2015 (Figure 5).
- IV.
- 2015–2020: Glacier area changes from 2015 to 2017 showed a dramatic reduction (26.3–24.2 km2), but from 2017–2020 was relatively stable (24.6–24.5 km2; 0.1 km2 per year). The period 2010–2014 corresponds to the period of increased precipitation and the greatest decrease in air temperature (Figure 5). In 2008, the rainfall was 126.8 mm, and in 2010, it almost doubled to 231.9 mm; this situation was maintained until 2015. However, the air temperature dropped sharply from −3.2 °C to −5.52 °C, and the average temperature was −3.3 °C until 2015 (Figure 5).
3.2. Air Temperature Analysis
3.3. Precipitation Analysis
3.4. Warming and Glacier Melting
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Date | Scene ID | Sensor | Resolution |
---|---|---|---|
1991 | LT51410271991198XXX03 | Landsat 5 TM | 30 m |
1992 | LT51410271992233BJC01 | Landsat 5 TM | 30 m |
1995 | LT51400271995218BJC00 | Landsat 5 TM | 30 m |
1997 | LT51410271997246BJC00 | Landsat 5 TM | 30 m |
2000 | LT51410272000191BJC00 | Landsat 5 TM | 30 m |
2002 | LE71400282002213SGS00 | Landsat 7 ETM+ | 30 m |
2004 | LT51410272004218BJC00 | Landsat 5 TM | 30 m |
2007 | LT51410272007226BJC00 | Landsat 5 TM | 30 m |
2008 | LT51410272008229BJC00 | Landsat 5 TM | 30 m |
2010 | LT51410272010234IKR02 | Landsat 5 TM | 30 m |
2013 | LC81410272013242LGN01 | Landsat 8 OLI | 30 m |
2014 | LC81410272014245 LGN01 | Landsat 8 OLI | 30 m |
2015 | LC81410272015216LGN01 | Landsat 8 OLI | 30 m |
2017 | LC81410272017205LGN01 | Landsat 8 OLI | 30 m |
2019 | LC81410272019227LGN00 | Landsat 8 OLI | 30 m |
2020 | LC81410272020214LGN00 | Landsat 8 OLI | 30 m |
S/No. | Name of Stations | Z (MK) | Φ | β |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Munkhkhairkhan | 1.29 | −0.18 | 0.01 |
2 | Doloonnuur | 1.03 | −0.22 | 0.01 |
3 | Bulgan | 1.20 | −0.17 | 0.01 |
4 | Bayannuur | 1.03 | −0.22 | 0.01 |
5 | Average | 0.96 | −0.18 | 0.01 |
S/No. | Name of Stations | Z (MK) | Φ | β |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Munkhkhairkhan | 2.01 | 1.28 | 0.96 |
2 | Doloonnuur | 3.21 | 1.79 | 1.40 |
3 | Bulgan | 3.21 | 1.79 | 1.40 |
4 | Bayannuur | 3.43 | 2.09 | 1.56 |
5 | Average | 2.81 | 1.72 | 1.38 |
Station | T Average (°C) | T Max (°C) | T Min (°C) | Precipitation (mm) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bulgan (Baitag) | 3.1 | 39 | −49.5 | 80.7 |
Munkhkhairkhan | 0.7 | 30.9 | −36.3 | 110.6 |
Must | 0.7 | 31.9 | −38.8 | 87.6 |
Altai | 2.8 | 43.6 | −42.9 | 69 |
Uyench | 2.4 | 39.6 | −39.4 | 78.1 |
Duut | −1.9 | 32.7 | −41.4 | 113.9 |
Bulgan (Duchinjil) | −1.1 | 32.5 | −40.5 | 137.1 |
Deluun | −1.9 | 31.1 | −42.7 | 110.7 |
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Share and Cite
Demberel, O.; Munkhbat, B.; Dorjsuren, B.; Callaghan, T.V.; Tsogoo, B.; Zemtsov, V.A.; Shaarav, O.; Gongor, E.; Jargalsaikhan, Z.; Ganhuyag, N.; et al. Relationship between Dynamics of Modern Glaciers of the Mt. Munkhkhairkhan (Mongolian Altai) and Climate. Water 2023, 15, 1921. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15101921
Demberel O, Munkhbat B, Dorjsuren B, Callaghan TV, Tsogoo B, Zemtsov VA, Shaarav O, Gongor E, Jargalsaikhan Z, Ganhuyag N, et al. Relationship between Dynamics of Modern Glaciers of the Mt. Munkhkhairkhan (Mongolian Altai) and Climate. Water. 2023; 15(10):1921. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15101921
Chicago/Turabian StyleDemberel, Otgonbayar, Bayarmaa Munkhbat, Batsuren Dorjsuren, Terry V. Callaghan, Bilguun Tsogoo, Valery A. Zemtsov, Otgontuya Shaarav, Erdenechimeg Gongor, Zolbayar Jargalsaikhan, Nemekhbayar Ganhuyag, and et al. 2023. "Relationship between Dynamics of Modern Glaciers of the Mt. Munkhkhairkhan (Mongolian Altai) and Climate" Water 15, no. 10: 1921. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15101921