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Article

Biomanipulation of Periphytic Algae in the Middle Route of South–North Water Diversion Project Canal: An In Situ Study in the Lushan Section

by
Xinzong Xiao
1,
Heying Sun
2,
Haiping Ren
1,
Mingxing Xing
1,
Jie Huang
2,
Yingcai Wang
2,
Sheng Hu
2,
Jing Zhang
2 and
Jianfeng Tang
2,*
1
Henan Branch, China South to North Water Diversion Middle Route Corporation Limited, Zhengzhou 450018, China
2
Center for Ecological Environment Monitoring and Scientific Research, Yangtze River Basin Ecological Environment Administration, Ministry of Ecological Environment, Wuhan 430019, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2023, 15(12), 2144; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15122144
Submission received: 21 March 2023 / Revised: 26 May 2023 / Accepted: 1 June 2023 / Published: 6 June 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology of Freshwater Fishes)
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Abstract

:
The biomanipulation technique has been developed and implemented for decades, yielding favorable results in various lakes both domestically and globally. This technology uses fish to reduce algae biomass, giving a natural and environmentally friendly solution to improve water quality. The effectiveness of biomanipulation technology in large-scale artificial water canals, on the other hand, has been unclear. To address this, from 15 December 2019 to 30 April 2020, an in situ experimental study on the biomanipulation of periphytic algae was conducted in the Lushan section of the main canal of the Middle Route of the South-to-North Water Diversion Project (MSNWDP). The study aimed to verify the control effect of fish on periphytic algae. Various combinations of Megalobrama terminalis and Xenocypris davidi were fixed on the canal with a triangular cylindrical cage, and their feeding effects on periphytic algae were observed. The results showed that the density of periphytic algae at the bottom of the cages was substantially lower than before the experiment, with a 68.75% average reduction. We graded the food-filling results based on the amount of digestive tract content, which was represented using Arabic numerals ranging from 0 to 5. The study discovered that M. terminalis had the best adaptability to the environment, with full intestines primarily composed of periphytic algae and a food-filling degree between grades 4 and 5. X. davidi, on the other hand, had a food-filling degree of 0. Furthermore, the weight of each M. terminalis increased significantly following the experiment, whereas the weight of each X. davidi decreased to varying degrees. Additionally, the study highlights the importance of selecting the appropriate fish species for biomanipulation, as different species may have varying levels of effectiveness in controlling periphytic algae. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the potential of biomanipulation technology in large-scale artificial water canals and other water conservancy projects.

1. Introduction

The Middle Route of the South-to-North Water Diversion Project (MSNWDP), located at 32°40′–39°58′ N and 111°42′–116°16′ E, is the largest inter-basin water diversion project in the world, with a total length of 1432 km. The project originates from the Danjiangkou Reservoir (32°36′–33°48′ N, 110°54′–111°48′ E) and flows northward to Beijing, the capital of China. As it travels through North China, the main canal crosses two climate zones, the subtropical monsoon humid climate zone and the temperate monsoon climate zone, with an average annual precipitation of 542–1173 mm and a multi-year air temperature of 14.6–21.2 °C. The project officially began supplying water in December 2014, providing water resources for domestic, industrial, and agricultural water consumption for four provinces or municipalities along the main canal, including Henan Province, Hebei Province, Tianjin Municipality, and Beijing Municipality. By the end of 2022, the MSNWDP had supplied over 60 billion m3 of water to more than 20 cities, directly benefiting more than 70 million people [1,2].
The majority of the canals are open and have concrete lining the slope and bottom. The ecosystem, however, is still in its infancy, and its balance has yet to be established. The fish community structure is simple, and there are not enough fish that consume algae [3,4]. Periphytic algae, together with bacteria and organic waste, frequently collects on the surface of the substrate and aquatic plants and is an important component of the aquatic food web [5]. If algae develop too quickly, they can obstruct the canal inlet and exit, reducing water delivery and increasing the accumulation of nutrients and organic waste in the sediment. If not treated promptly, this can lead to secondary contamination [6]. Periphytic algae outbreaks have occurred numerous times in the Middle Route canal, necessitating enormous manpower and resources to salvage the algae and assure the safety of the water supply [4]. Periphytic algae biomass in the Middle Route canal reached 63.5 t/km2, which is 6.35 times that of planktonic algae [3]. Controlling the biomass of periphytic algae is thus an efficient method of reducing the total amount of algal contaminants in the Middle Route canal.
Because of the Middle Route canal’s particular structure and flow conditions, the natural growth and shedding of periphytic algae produces a considerable number of algal contaminants. These pollutants are suspended in the water and spread along the canal’s flow, posing a unique risk to water quality and necessitating innovative solutions. While mechanical methods can remove algal contaminants, they are expensive and do not address the underlying issue. Instead, introducing algae-eating fish, increasing the rate at which fish utilize the system’s primary productivity, encouraging more primary productivity, particularly with periphytic algae, to enter a higher trophic level, and participating in the Middle Route canal’s material cycle and energy flow are the best ways to address the problem of algal pollutants. Meanwhile, the main canal has a high background value for periphytic algae biomass. During the peak of algae blooms, pollution removal equipment can remove up to 12.5 t of algae pollutants every day [4]. Therefore, screening fish that can not only adapt to the aquatic environment of the Middle Route canal but also successfully eliminate periphytic algae is an essential scientific concern. Researchers discovered that Xenocypris sp. has well-developed sticky borders at the front of its lower jaw, allowing it to scrape and feed on humus contaminants, different periphytic algae, and organic detritus from upper-layer fish excrement. Megalobrama terminalis mostly consumes aquatic plants (such as Vallisneria natans, Hydrilla verticillate, and so on), and Limnoperna fortunei also eats some Spirogyra sp. and filamentous green algae. As a result, these two fish species are frequently utilized to manage L. fortunei and periphytic algae in lakes and reservoirs [7,8].
The biomanipulation theory, which modifies fish community structures to control water quality, has been established and used for many years. In numerous lakes, including Danish lakes [9,10], Wuhan Donghu Lake [11,12], Huizhou West Lake [13], Qiandao Lake [14], Erhai Lake [15], Kuilei Lake [16], and others, it has produced positive results. Through the use of shellfish (such Corbicula fluminea, oysters) or fish–shellfish combinations, biomanipulation has also been expanded to control and enhance eutrophic water quality [17,18]. The research of biomanipulation in a waterway canal with a full-section concrete lining and a single habitat, however, has received very little attention. This paper focuses on periphytic algae as the research object. Different fish groups (M. terminalis and Xenocypris davidi) perform an in situ biomanipulation experiment, which compares and analyzes the regulation effects of the fishes on the algae and identifies the fishes that adapt well to the water environment of the main canal and have a good feeding effect on the algae. Finally, this study provides a reference and scientific foundation for related work in the MSNWDP and other large-scale water conservancy projects.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Site

The study site was located on the slope of the canal near the Zhangcun watershed (33°46′55″ N, 112°59′47″ E) in Lushan County, Henan Province, which is the main canal of the MSNWDP (Figure 1). The in situ experiment started on 15 December 2019. During this time, the mean depth of the study site was approximately 7.0 m, the mean water temperature was 12.3 °C, and the flow velocity was between 0.8 and 1.2 m/s.

2.2. Experimental Materials

X. davidi were introduced from the Liling National Catfish Breeding Farm, Hunan Province. They had a total length of 37.2 ± 1.0 cm and a weight of 502.4 ± 45.8 g. M. terminalis were introduced from the Hangzhou National Breeding Farm of Triangular Bream, Zhejiang Province. They had a total length of 40.7 ± 3.0 cm and a weight of 710.9 ± 166.9 g. Before the experiment, both fish species were domesticated for 10 days in a temporary pond using water from the Middle Route canal to adapt to the new environment. The total length and weight of each experimental fish were measured.
The in situ cage was in the form of a triangular prism, with the main structure welded with steel bars. The bottom of the cage was 2.0 m long, 1.8 m wide, and 1.2 m high, with a slope of 1.5 m and a volume of 2.16 m3 (Figure 2). Each side of the cage was wrapped with nylon mesh (mesh: 2.5 cm), and an opening and closing pocket was left on the front of the cage to facilitate the placement of experimental fish.

2.3. Experimental Design

A total of 15 in situ cages were arranged on the left and right bank slopes of the canal at the study site. Both ends of the cages were fixed on the canal slope by wire ropes (Figure 1). The experimental fish were divided into four groups for research: 3 X. davidi (Group 1) in cages 1#–3#; 3 M. terminalis (Group 2) in cages 4#–6#; 2 X. davidi and 1 M. terminalis (Group 3) in cages 7#–9#; and 2 M. terminalis and 1 X. davidi (Group 4) in cages 10#–12#. The control group was in cages 13#–15# and had no fish. Each fish in the cage was distinguished by clipping the fin rays.

2.4. Sample Collection and Analysis

Following the experiment, periphytic algae samples were collected about every 10 days. Two to three samples of 50 cm2 algae were scraped from the canal surface under each cage with a small excavator, a knife, and a toothbrush. These samples were put into a white porcelain plate, mixed with a proper amount of pure water, put into a sample bottle to a constant volume of 100 mL, and fixed with Lugol’s solution. The treated samples of periphytic algae were observed under a microscope, and the cell density of periphytic algae was calculated using a counting box with an area of 20 mm × 20 mm and a capacity of 0.1 mL. The method of counting was that of eyesight; 500 visual fields were randomly counted and distributed evenly within the count box. Each sample counted 2 pieces and the average value was taken as the final result (if the difference between the counting results of 2 pieces is more than 15%, count the third piece, and select 2 pieces with a similar number to take the average value) [19,20,21]. For the qualitative and quantitative analysis of periphytic algae, refer to The Freshwater Algae of China-Systematics, Taxonomy and Ecology [22], and finally, calculate the algae density (cells·cm−2) at each sampling site on the canal surface.
After the experiment, we measured the total length and weight of each fish, calculated their growth during the experiment, dissected them, and identified their feeding habits through artificial microscopy. We analyzed dietary intensity by examining intestinal congestion. This involves observing the density and amount of food in the fish’s digestive tract through visual inspection. We divided the results into six grades depending on the amount of digestive tract content, which is represented by Arabic numerals from 0 to 5 [23]. Class 0: the intestine is empty; class 1: food occupies about 1/4 of the intestine; class 2: food occupies about 1/2 of the intestine; class 3: food occupies about 3/4 of the intestine; class 4: food occupies the intestine; class 5: extremely full, and the intestine is inflated.

2.5. Data Analysis

R software (V4.1.1) was used to analyze the differences in the change in the periphytic algae among different sampling times as well as the difference in fish weight before and after the experiment using Kruskal−Wallis tests because the data sets were not normally distributed. Significance was determined at a p-value of 0.05.

3. Results

3.1. Density Changes of Periphytic Algae

The in situ experiment was originally planned to last for two months from 15 December 2019; however, it was postponed to April 30 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As seen in Table 1, a total of two experimental fish (X. davidi) perished during the experiment, yielding a 94.4% fish survival rate. Due to the impacts of fish feeding since the start of the experiment, the density of periphytic algae at the bottom of cages significantly decreased. The density of periphytic algae decreased with time in Groups 2, 3, and 4, reaching its lowest point at the end of the experiment. The density of periphytic algae in group 1 decreased by 55.43% compared to the start of the experiment, group 2 decreased by 71.76%, group 3 decreased by 69.46%, and group 4 decreased by 78.37%, for an average decrease of 68.75%. At the end of the experiment, the control group had increased by 11.35%.
Based on the analysis of the six sample results, the average density of periphytic algae under each cage since the second sampling was significantly lower than before the experiment (p < 0.05) but exhibited no significant difference in the middle of the experiment. However, the density of the periphytic algae at the end of the experiment was significantly lower than at the beginning and middle stages (Figure 3). Additionally, Figure 4 showed that there were few periphytic algae in the cages of group 4, while the cages of the control group had attached a large number of periphytic algae by the end of the experiment.

3.2. Analysis of Fish Feeding Habits

When the fish in in situ cages were dissected after the experiment, it was found that the intestinal food-filling degrees of X. davidi were 0, virtually jejunum, whereas those of M. terminalis were full, and the food-filling degrees ranged from 4 to 5. The intestinal contents taken from M. terminalis were examined under a microscope, and the results revealed that the majority of the contents were made up of periphytic algae (diatoms), with the quantity percentages being ranked as follows: Diatoma sp., Gomphonema sp., Cymbella sp., Cocconeis sp., Navicula sp., Synedra sp., Cladophora sp., Spirogyra communis, etc. (Figure 5).
As seen in Figure 6, diatoms made up the majority of the periphytic algal population at the study location, with just a tiny amount of green and blue algae.

3.3. Changes in Body Weight of Experimental Fishes

After the experiment, each M. terminalis showed significant weight gain (p < 0.01), ranging from 40.8 to 299.8 g, with an average gain of 155.7 g per fish and 1.14 g per day. With the exception of one X. davidi, the others showed significant weight loss (p < 0.05), ranging from 1.0 to 60.5 g, with an average loss of 24.4 g per fish (Figure 7).

4. Discussion

4.1. Prevention and Control of Periphytic Algae

Biomanipulation is a typical biological strategy for regulating algae that also has long-term control potential. Through the effective regulation of the food web in the aquatic ecosystem, classical or non-classical biomanipulation approaches are utilized to control planktonic algae [24]. There have been many successful applications of biomanipulation, as well as many failures. Many studies and issues have raised questions about the application effects of biomanipulation theory, and scientists believe that zooplankton cannot continuously and efficiently regulate macroalgae, particularly filamentous algae that form blooms or cyanobacteria clusters [12]. Cyanobacteria can be controlled by stocking fish, but not all algae and different densities of fish have opposite impacts on planktonic algae. Cyanobacteria may increase if the stocking density of silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis) do not meet the threshold. Furthermore, the distribution of planktonic algae in eutrophic water is uneven. In areas where algae concentrate substantially, the worsening of circumstances such as oxygen may not be adequate for fish survival. As a result, there may be fewer fish densities in waters that require algae treatment, resulting in ineffective control [25]. Compared to planktonic algae, there are fewer cases of applying biomanipulation theory to manage periphytic algae, let alone applications in canals.
Unlike planktonic algae, periphytic algae are the most concentrated decomposers in freshwater ecosystems, and they are responsible for decomposition within the system’s material cycle and act as a living nutrient pool [26]. In natural and unpolluted rivers, the algae population consists mainly of diatoms and a small number of green and blue algae [27]. When a river was polluted, not only the number of species decreased, but also the community structure shifted from diatom-dominant to one dominated by various filamentous green or unicellular green and blue algae, and the diatom species changed from those with narrow tolerance to broad tolerance [27]. The MSNWDP is a new artificial ecosystem, and the large concrete surface area and suitable light conditions provide a good growth environment for periphytic algae. However, the rapid growth of periphytic algae biomass and the phenomena of aging, falling, and floating have affected water quality stability to a certain extent [21].
Periphytic algae prevention and control primarily utilize physical, chemical, and biological techniques [28,29]. Physical and chemical approaches have significant disadvantages when compared to biological approaches, such as mechanical algae removal being time-consuming, laborious, and expensive. A lot of equipment must be invested in the Middle Route canal, which spans more than 1000 km, and the effects are often not as expected [30]. Toxic compounds used in chemical methods have varying degrees of harmful impacts on the growth and development of other organisms [31,32]. Since the Middle Route canal’s water body is a vital drinking water source, it is illegal to employ chemical techniques to prevent and manage periphytic algae. When eliminating periphytic algae, the biological manipulation method is environmentally friendly and has no adverse impacts on the aquatic environment or ecology. According to the research, X. davidi has the optimum effect on removing nutrients and purifying water when the stocking density is 40 g/m3 by scraping detritus, periphytic algae, and other substances from the bottom [33]. X. davidi and chironomid larvae ingest debris in different ways, which can promote nitrogen transformation, degradation, and denitrification and improve the self-purification ability of water [34]. Siganus oramin also has a high removal efficiency in terms of the algae attached to nets cultured in cages, with an average removal rate of more than 80% and a daily average weight gain of 0.26 g [35].
Omnivorous benthic fish, such as Cyprinus carpio, Carassius auratus, and Oreochromis niloticus, can directly feed on benthos, including benthic algae. C. carpio, on the other hand, has been found in studies to stir up the sediment while feeding, increasing the resuspension of bottom sediment, diminishing water transparency, and stimulating the growth of planktonic algae, which enhances the eutrophication degree of the water [36,37,38,39]. Another study showed that dumping barley straw into a ditch bank inhibited the growth of Chladophora sp. and filamentous algae while promoting the growth of aquatic higher plants [40,41]. Furthermore, fungus can be used to prevent and control periphytic algae. Acremonium kiliense can generate intermediate chemicals that discolor Chladophora sp., and inhibit their growth, which is particularly noticeable in the summer [42,43].

4.2. Trophic Plasticity of Fish

Trophic plasticity refers to fish’s ability to adapt their nutritional properties in response to environmental influences, and individual development, environmental conditions, and food composition all play a role [44]. Grass carp, for example, generally feed on aquatic plants, but when food is scarce, they will devour animal food such as shrimp. Gymnocypris przewalskii in Qinghai Lake mostly feeds on animal food in May, when zooplankton density is high. G. przewalskii mostly feeds on plant food in October, when the temperature is lower and zooplankton proliferation is inhibited [45]. The initial intention of this study was to verify the control effect of X. davidi on the periphytic algae of the Middle Route, with M. amblycephala as the reference object. However, the experimental results showed that M. amblycephala had a high feeding intensity on the periphytic algae and grew well. On the other hand, X. davidi had a low feeding intensity, and its growth was inhibited. The plasticity of the feeding habits of M. amblycephala is directly related to changes in external conditions, including changes in the abundance of food resources, changes in food composition, or nutrient levels of food organisms [46]. The result confirmed the hypothesis that species can adjust their feeding strategies according to changes in their food abundance or specific food composition [47]. M. amblycephala mainly feeds on aquatic plants and freshwater mussels [8], and when confined in an in situ cage with only periphytic algae available, it could adjust its feeding strategy timely to maintain its own survival needs. These results show that M. amblycephala can adapt well to the lotic environment of the Middle Route, and its dietary habits are highly plastic.
Fish food is typically divided into three categories based on the degree of choice: preference, substitution, and mandatory food. Favorite foods are the best food options and are often the main component of a fish’s diet. When their favorite food is not available, fish will choose to eat alternative foods. When neither their favorite nor alternative foods are available, fish are forced to eat mandatory food to survive. Because preferred foods often provide the maximum energy and nutritional value for fish, their growth rate will increase when these foods are available in sufficient quantities. However, when alternative or even mandatory food becomes the main food source for fish, their growth rate will slow down or stop [23]. Unlike natural rivers, the immobilization and lining hardening of the Middle Route canal changed the permeability and porosity of the canal bottom, resulting in “desertification”, low levels of organic material and debris, and no growth space for aquatic plants [3]. Therefore, few species of bait organisms are available for fish to eat, and fish can only eat alternative or mandatory food to survive. Between the two experimental fishes, only M. amblycephala showed a significant increase in weight after the experiment, indicating that periphytic algae in the Middle Route are also a favorite food for M. amblycephala. However, X. davidi fed on organic debris, sapropel, filamentous algae, diatoms, green algae, etc. [48,49,50] and did not like the periphytic algae in the canal. This may be related to the water environment of the Middle Route canal, as the flowing water environment would affect the feeding efficiency of Xenocypris microlepis [51].

5. Conclusions

(1)
The results of the in situ experiment showed that fish feeding significantly reduced the density of periphytic algae at the bottom of the cage compared to before the experiment. Groups 2 and 4 had the best control effects in terms of periphytic algae.
(2)
The feeding effect of M. amblycephala was the strongest, and the food-filling degree was between 4 and 5 levels. The intestinal content was mainly composed of periphytic algae, while the food-filling degree of X. davidi was 0. At the end of the experiment, the weight of each M. amblycephala increased significantly, while the weight of X. davidi showed a downward trend.
(3)
M. amblycephala can best adapt to the water environment of the Middle Route canal, and its feeding habits are highly adaptable. In a restrictive environment, it can also make good use of algae for food and has a good regulatory effect on periphytic algae. In the subsequent practice of biomanipulation of the Middle Route canal, M. amblycephala should be considered the preferred fish.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, X.X. and J.T.; Methodology, J.T.; Software, S.H.; Validation, S.H.; Formal analysis, H.S.; Investigation, H.S., H.R. and M.X.; Resources, X.X., H.R. and J.Z.; Writing—original draft, X.X., H.S. and J.H.; Writing—review & editing, Y.W. and J.T.; Visualization, M.X., J.H. and J.Z.; Supervision, Y.W.; Project administration, J.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Key Research and Development Project (No. 2021YFC3200902); the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 32101410); and the China National Critical Project for Science and Technology on Water Pollution Prevention and Control (No. 2017ZX07108001).

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are unavailable due to privacy restrictions of the MSNWDP.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Water 15 02144 g001 550
Figure 1. Study site in the MSNWDP.
Figure 1. Study site in the MSNWDP.
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Figure 2. Structure drawing of the in situ cage.
Figure 2. Structure drawing of the in situ cage.
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Figure 3. The average periphytic algae density changes of in situ cages during the experiment. Different lowercase letters represent significant differences among treatments (p < 0.05).
Figure 3. The average periphytic algae density changes of in situ cages during the experiment. Different lowercase letters represent significant differences among treatments (p < 0.05).
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Figure 4. Attachment of periphytic algae on the cage after the experiment.
Figure 4. Attachment of periphytic algae on the cage after the experiment.
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Figure 5. Intestinal food composition of M. terminalis (a): Diatoma sp.; (b): Gomphonema sp.; (c): Cymbella sp.; (d): Cocconeis sp.; (e): Navicula sp.; (f): Synedra sp.; (g): Cladophora sp.; (h): Spirogyra communis).
Figure 5. Intestinal food composition of M. terminalis (a): Diatoma sp.; (b): Gomphonema sp.; (c): Cymbella sp.; (d): Cocconeis sp.; (e): Navicula sp.; (f): Synedra sp.; (g): Cladophora sp.; (h): Spirogyra communis).
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Figure 6. The changes in the periphytic algae community composition of the study site.
Figure 6. The changes in the periphytic algae community composition of the study site.
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Figure 7. Changes in body weight before and after the experiment, M. terminalis (left) and X. davidi (right). Different lowercase letters represent significant differences among treatments (p < 0.05).
Figure 7. Changes in body weight before and after the experiment, M. terminalis (left) and X. davidi (right). Different lowercase letters represent significant differences among treatments (p < 0.05).
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Table
Table 1. The changes in periphytic algae density at the bottom of the cage for each fish group.
Table 1. The changes in periphytic algae density at the bottom of the cage for each fish group.
DateGroup 1Group 2Group 3Group 4Control Group
104 cells·cm−2
15 December 2019534.24 ± 12.43486.62 ± 31.29677.41 ± 26.70713.08 ± 22.10561.12 ± 30.69
27 December 2019231.71 ± 30.75237.17 ± 15.97288.18 ± 43.61255.28 ± 22.62572.41 ± 25.49
4 January 2020222.15 ± 11.00224.93 ± 12.84253.29 ± 19.92261.85 ± 27.23543.68 ± 20.57
15 January 2020227.03 ± 8.57213.45 ± 30.27262.18 ± 11.27213.86 ± 13.99543.38 ± 28.27
21 January 2020237.25 ± 18.46223.59 ± 11.77224.09 ± 35.56186.61 ± 15.77554.18 ± 38.45
30 April 2020238.09 ± 10.68137.42 ± 10.96206.86 ± 8.81154.23 ± 6.23624.80 ± 18.47
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MDPI and ACS Style

Xiao, X.; Sun, H.; Ren, H.; Xing, M.; Huang, J.; Wang, Y.; Hu, S.; Zhang, J.; Tang, J. Biomanipulation of Periphytic Algae in the Middle Route of South–North Water Diversion Project Canal: An In Situ Study in the Lushan Section. Water 2023, 15, 2144. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15122144

AMA Style

Xiao X, Sun H, Ren H, Xing M, Huang J, Wang Y, Hu S, Zhang J, Tang J. Biomanipulation of Periphytic Algae in the Middle Route of South–North Water Diversion Project Canal: An In Situ Study in the Lushan Section. Water. 2023; 15(12):2144. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15122144

Chicago/Turabian Style

Xiao, Xinzong, Heying Sun, Haiping Ren, Mingxing Xing, Jie Huang, Yingcai Wang, Sheng Hu, Jing Zhang, and Jianfeng Tang. 2023. "Biomanipulation of Periphytic Algae in the Middle Route of South–North Water Diversion Project Canal: An In Situ Study in the Lushan Section" Water 15, no. 12: 2144. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15122144

APA Style

Xiao, X., Sun, H., Ren, H., Xing, M., Huang, J., Wang, Y., Hu, S., Zhang, J., & Tang, J. (2023). Biomanipulation of Periphytic Algae in the Middle Route of South–North Water Diversion Project Canal: An In Situ Study in the Lushan Section. Water, 15(12), 2144. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15122144

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