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Review

Observational Studies of Ocean Fronts: A Systematic Review of Chinese-Language Literature

by
Xin-Tang Shen
and
Igor M. Belkin
*
College of Marine Science and Technology, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan 316022, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2023, 15(20), 3649; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15203649
Submission received: 27 July 2023 / Revised: 11 October 2023 / Accepted: 16 October 2023 / Published: 18 October 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Oceans and Coastal Zones)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This review will serve as an entry point for international researchers who would like to tap into the vast scientific potential of Chinese-language literature on oceanic fronts. We focused on observational physical oceanography studies of marine fronts. A thorough bibliographic search netted 95 papers published in 1982–2023, with a sharp increase in the total number of papers from 2006–2010 to 2011–2015, when this number almost tripled. This trend continued unabated through the early 2020s. The sharp increase in Chinese-language publications preceded by several years a rapid increase in English-language publications in the same field. Regionally, the overwhelming majority of papers is focused on the China Seas, particularly the East China Seas and northern South China Sea. Elsewhere, a number of papers were dedicated to the Southern Ocean and North Atlantic. Thematically, papers on remote sensing of ocean fronts dominate the literature, with special attention to the development of front-detection algorithms that can be applied to satellite data on sea surface temperature, salinity, chlorophyll, and sea level anomaly. Numerous papers on marine fronts in the China Seas present important results that have to be considered by international researchers. Overall, this review emphasizes the significant contributions made by Chinese oceanographers, particularly to studies of the frontal oceanography of the China Seas.

1. Introduction

This century saw English becoming a truly global language, a veritable lingua franca of science and technology. As the total number of English-language journals and papers published in these journals skyrocketed, the relevance of non-English-language publications is sometimes questioned. Yet China and Chinese language are exceptions since the quantity and quality of scientific papers published by Chinese researchers are rapidly growing in absolute and relative terms [1,2,3]. Therefore, the importance of Chinese-language publications is self-evident. The global community of scientists is keenly interested in accessing results of studies conducted in China and published in Chinese. The need to examine the contribution of Chinese-language papers to our research field provided a strong impetus for this study.
Seas around China feature numerous fronts [4,5,6]. These fronts have various structures and physical natures as they are formed and maintained by different physical mechanisms such as tides, wintertime thermal convection, summertime surface heating by solar radiation, water mass convergence, river discharge, coastal wind-driven upwelling, and topographic upwelling. In terms of physical diversity and sheer number of individual fronts, the China Seas (from the Bohai Sea in the north to the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand in the south) stand out as the world’s richest frontal region [5]. Most fronts in the China Seas persist year-around, being best defined in winter. The fronts affect various aspects of maritime activities of people who populate countries around the China Seas, particularly China. Therefore, Chinese oceanographers and marine biologists traditionally paid attention to oceanic fronts. Over the last few decades, Chinese studies of fronts extended far beyond the China Seas and encompassed all of the world’s oceans. These days, the great majority of Chinese studies are published in English-language international journals that are freely available to the international community online and offline. Yet, at the same time, numerous studies of significant value are still published in Chinese-language domestic journals. Such journals are not readily available outside China, and many of them are not indexed by either Scopus or Web of Science. The desire to increase the awareness of the international community about various achievements of Chinese researchers, both past and present, was the main incentive for this review.
We limited the scope of this review to observational studies from in situ and remote sensing data, including front-detection algorithms [7]. Well-planned observational studies retain their value for a long time. Moreover, in the context of climate change, older observations of the past physical, chemical, and biological conditions in the ocean become even more valuable since historical observational data can serve as a reference point in comparison studies of the present state of the ocean vs. its past state. As the old adage goes, the past is the key to the future.
This paper is structured as follows: Section 2 describes bibliographic data sources, main principles of search strategy, and the methodology of this review. Section 3 presents results of our review, chronologically, regionally, and thematically. Section 4 presents a selection of key observational studies of physical fronts in the China Seas published in Chinese-language literature and discusses their major findings. Section 5 contains a brief discussion of some trends that transpired from this study. Section 6 summarizes our conclusions.

2. Data and Methods

2.1. Main Principles of the Search Strategy

First, the search focused on oceanic fronts that play a key role in the marine realm. Second, the search focused on observational physical oceanography, including satellite oceanography. Papers on biological oceanography and geological oceanography were included provided they reported observations on physical and biochemical fronts. Papers on air–sea interactions in frontal zones were identified and included in this review. Papers on various applications of frontal studies were sought in such fields as fisheries oceanography, aquaculture, environment protection and conservation, and pollution control, prevention, and mitigation. Theoretical and modeling papers on fronts were excluded with a few exceptions. Several papers on acoustical oceanography were identified; all of them reported numerical experiments and therefore were excluded.

2.2. Principal Bibliographic Sources

The China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) Database was our main bibliographic resource. The CNKI is the largest and most comprehensive database of Chinese papers. To ensure the repeatability of our work, we (1) limited our survey to those sources that are freely available online at no charge; (2) provided a DOI or URL for each source; and (3) hyperlinked all sources to their respective references. In addition to CNKI, we used Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar.

2.3. Systematic Review Criteria

An attempt was made to meet the following criteria of a systematic review: (1) clearly defined problem/goal; (2) unambiguously formulated data selection criteria (data inclusion and exclusion criteria); (3) search strategy algorithm; (4) structured analysis of results; (5) rigorous appraisal of data selected; (6) adequate, representative, and comprehensive data sources; (7) objective and unbiased approach to the presentation of results.

2.4. Goals, Objectives, and Search Criteria

Our goal was to identify and review Chinese-language studies that present results on (1) spatial distribution and temporal variability of fronts in the world’s oceans; (2) the three-dimensional structure of these fronts; and (3) biological, chemical, and geological manifestations of the fronts. The main inclusion–exclusion criterion was the observational nature of studies as opposed to theoretical and modeling studies, which hopefully will be reviewed by other scholars. The second most important inclusion–exclusion criterion was the fundamental nature of studies as opposed to various applications of front-oriented studies. The search results are presented chronologically, thematically, and regionally.

2.5. Duplicate Papers

We did our best to identify and exclude duplicate papers. In the past, it was common practice among non-native-English-speaking authors to publish first in their mother tongue, and then publish the same paper in English as a new paper. These days, this practice is considered self-plagiarism, and it is prohibited by most publishers who use anti-plagiarism software to identify duplicate submissions. The strict enforcement of the anti-plagiarism policy by publishers in China and elsewhere has resolved the problem of duplicate publications.

2.6. Further Refinement of Bibliographic Search

Papers selected for this review were screened for the completeness and accessibility to international readers, including the availability of English-language abstracts and the completeness of bibliographic information, the latter being a fairly standard requirement of any review. Of some 130 papers initially identified by keyword searches, less than 10 papers failed to meet the above requirements. The total number of papers eventually selected for this review was 95. This number is too small to justify a full-scale statistical analysis of results. However, some chronological, thematical, and regional trends became obvious at the analysis stage. These trends are presented in their respective sections.

3. Results

3.1. Overview

Table 1 presents all studies selected for this review, sorted alphabetically by the first authors’ surnames. The consecutive numbers in Column 1 refer to papers in the References.

3.2. Chronology

Temporal distribution of 95 papers is presented in Table 2, which makes evident a sharp increase in the total number of papers after 2010 that continued unabated through the early 2020s. This clear-cut trend is important. It shows that Chinese researchers expanded their publication activity in Chinese in parallel with the well-known global trend of using English as an international language of science and technology.

3.3. Regional Coverage

The spatial distribution of papers listed in Table 1 is extremely non-uniform, as evidenced by Table 3. The overwhelming majority of papers is focused on the China Seas, particularly the East China Seas (Bohai, Yellow, and East China Sea, especially the Yangtze River Estuary and Plume) and northern South China Sea. Elsewhere, a significant number of papers are dedicated to the Southern Ocean. Few papers focus on the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The paucity of papers on the open North Pacific is surprising given the proximity and importance of this region to China.

3.4. Thematical/Subject Coverage

Thematically, papers on remote sensing of ocean fronts dominate the literature (Table 4), with special attention paid to the development of front-detection algorithms applied to satellite data on sea surface temperature and chlorophyll; some of these algorithms are potentially applicable to other variables, e.g., salinity and sea level anomaly.

3.5. Content Analysis—A Summary and Overview of Main Results

The two tables below contain lists of the most important papers on space–time variability of oceanic fronts (Table 5) and on front-detection algorithms (Table 6). Results of these studies are presented in detail in the next section.

4. Content Analysis: Key Studies of Physical Fronts in the China Seas

4.1. China Seas: Reviews

Chen B et al. (2018) [13] suggested a unified framework for qualitative and quantitative analysis of satellite infrared SST data to derive temporal and spatial distribution characteristics of SST fronts in the China Seas. Based on a global review of SST fronts, Chen B et al. (2018) [13] compiled a summary of SST gradient magnitude (GM) criteria used by various authors to identify SST fronts in the world’s oceans, and particularly in the China Seas. Using the newly derived SST GM criteria, Chen B et al. (2018) [13] produced frontal maps for the Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and South China Sea, and identified some new fronts in these maps. These results deserve close scrutiny, as the fixed SST GM criteria used by various authors differ widely, depending on data-processing algorithms and spatial/temporal resolution of SST data. Therefore, instead of using fixed criteria for SST GM, most authors identify SST fronts with narrow zones of enhanced SST GM, as reviewed by Belkin (2021) [7]. However, in order to produce maps of frontal frequency, it is necessary to adopt a fixed value of SST GM that would effectively define fronts in a given study, as demonstrated recently by Belkin et al. (2023) [6].
Ren SH et al. (2015) [56] reviewed the progress in studies of fronts in the Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and northern South China Sea. They also reviewed various methods of front forecasting based on numerical circulation models. Examples are given and comparisons are made of different models and their performance with regard to front forecasting in the Kuroshio region, Gulf Stream, Gulf of Mexico, and Iceland–Faroe front. Among ocean fronts identified in frontal forecast studies reviewed by Ren SH et al. (2015) [56] are large-scale permanent fronts associated with major currents such as the Kuroshio and Gulf Stream, and also mesoscale fronts around rings (eddies spawned by meandering currents) such as the Loop Current rings in the Gulf of Mexico.
Xu SQ et al. (2015) [72] reviewed thermal fronts in the China Seas. They provided maps of long-term mean monthly frequency of SST fronts based on the OSTIA dataset, which is described as follows (https://podaac.jpl.nasa.gov/dataset/UKMO-L4HRfnd-GLOB-OSTIA; accessed on 6 September 2023): “A Group for High Resolution Sea Surface Temperature (GHRSST) Level 4 sea surface temperature analysis produced daily on an operational basis at the UK Met Office using optimal interpolation (OI) on a global 0.054 degree grid. The Operational Sea Surface Temperature and Sea Ice Analysis (OSTIA) uses satellite data from sensors that include the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR), the Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer (AATSR), the Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infrared Imager (SEVIRI), the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS (AMSRE), the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Microwave Imager (TMI), and in situ data from drifting and moored buoys. This analysis has a highly smoothed SST field and was specifically produced to support SST data assimilation into Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) models.” Xu SQ et al. (2015) [72] provided frontal frequency maps for four regions (Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and northern South China Sea north of 18° N) and compared their results with other frontal climatologies published prior to 2015.
Liu DY et al. (2022) [34] provided the most comprehensive review to date of shelf fronts in the China Seas. They identified 14 quasi-permanent fronts in the Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and northern South China Sea north of 18° N. Seasonal variability of these fronts was illustrated by seasonal maps of front intensity defined as SST gradient magnitude (GM). Liu DY et al. (2022) [34] considered different physical types of shelf fronts, particularly tidal mixing fronts (TMFs), river plume fronts, and shelf-break fronts. Ecological effects and the importance of various fronts are emphasized, including sedimentation at river plume fronts.

4.2. East China Seas

Liu CY and Wang F (2009) [33] presented long-term (1985–2002) seasonal climatology of the Yellow Sea SST fronts from AVHRR Pathfinder monthly and 8-day data. They studied the intra-seasonal evolution of the SST fronts in the Yellow Sea Warm Current (YSWC) origin area. The frontal system is composed of two parts—northern (33–34° N) and southern (along the edge of the Yangtze Bank)—from late fall to spring. During the developing and decaying periods, the northern and southern parts may connect to form a tongue-shaped front. The YSWC origin area front forms NW of Cheju (Jeju) Island in late November and extends NW until January–February; it then retreats SE before finally disappearing in spring.
Wei QS et al. (2011) [66] documented biochemical and physical fronts in the western Yellow Sea from a comprehensive CTD ship survey in summer 2006. Tidal mixing fronts (TMFs) were surveyed in the western boundary area of the southern Huanghai Sea Cold Water Mass (HSCWM). The most notable fronts were reported NE of the Yangtze River Estuary, in the Shidao coastal area, and off Haizhou Bay. An association between local upwellings and fronts has been reported in some areas, particularly around the HSCWM. The above physical processes have a profound effect on the distribution and dynamics of nutrients and biochemical processes, thus directly affecting regional marine ecosystems.
Wang YZ et al. (2013) [63] studied the seasonal variability of the Shandong Peninsula Front and its impact on sediment transport and deposition using data from the National Coastal Sea Comprehensive Investigation and Evaluation Project (908-ST02). The transportation mechanism of suspended matter off eastern Shandong Peninsula is similar to that in the East China Sea: deposition in summer and transport in winter. In summer, the suspended matter was restricted vertically by the near-bottom thermocline and horizontally by a front between the coastal currents off eastern Shandong Peninsula and the northern Yellow Sea cold water mass. As a result, suspended matter deposited primarily in summer. Two strong shear current fronts were found in winter on both sides of the top part of the mud wedge (tongue). These fronts prevented suspended sediments from the bottom part of the mud wedge moving across the edge of the eastern Shandong Peninsula continental shelf, resulting in the formation of an omega-shaped (‘Ω’) mud wedge formation off eastern Shandong Peninsula.
Xu JJ et al. (2021) [70] reported physical and biochemical fronts of the Changjiang River Estuary (CRE) and freshwater discharge region in summer 2019 based on a detailed oceanographic section oriented approximately along the axis of the river plume. The study focused on two fronts: (1) the sediment front that borders inshore water vertically mixed by tides, and (2) the plume front that borders the low salinity plume. The transition zone between the sediment and plume fronts featured high concentration of Chl-a, largely owing to nutrients supplied by river discharge and upwelling. Rapid sedimentation across the sediment front alleviated light limitation in the transition zone, thereby contributing to the phytoplankton growth.
Han YS et al. (2023) [18] presented a long-term (2011–2020) monthly climatology of the Shandong Peninsula Front from SST data with 0.01° resolution using multiscale ultra-high-resolution SST data (MUR SST). They also analyzed images of suspended sediment concentration provided by the geostationary ocean color imager (GOCI) satellite. The Shandong Peninsula SST Front varied seasonally, being strong in winter and weak in summer. The SST front was collocated with high concentrations of suspended sediments. The interannual east–west oscillations of the SST front and the offshore distance of suspended sediment diffusion were related to the January wind strength.

4.3. South China Sea

Hong Y and Li L (1999) [20] reported cruise data from a ship survey of fronts in northern South China Sea in August–September 1994. The survey consisted of a series of parallel oceanographic sections in the NW-SE direction oriented approximately across the shelf-slope front. Numerous vertical sections (down to 250 m) and maps (at 0 m, 50 m, 100 m, and 150 m) of temperature, salinity, and density revealed a complex mesoscale structure of the shelf-slope front and allowed cross-frontal gradients and ranges to be estimated.
Hu JY et al. (2000) [22] reported ongoing measurements of surface temperature and salinity in the Taiwan Strait in August 1998. There were two zones of low temperature and high salinity in the nearshore zones off Dongshan and Nan’ao, with SST down to 23.5 °C and salinity about 34.0 psu. A thermohaline front in the south was observed with T/S gradients of 0.18 °C/km and 0.14 psu/km, respectively. Another zone with a low T/high S was observed in the nearshore areas to the south and northeast of Pingtan Island. Here, the SST was about 1.5–3.0 °C lower than in adjacent areas. In the area off Quanzhou, a low T/high S zone was observed, with SST < 27.0 °C and salinity > 34.0 psu.
Cao ZY et al. (2016) [10] reported cruise data from a ship survey of the East Hainan Upwelling Front in July 2012 and studied seasonal variability of SST fronts around Hainan from 12 months of high-resolution satellite SST data from multiple satellite missions (OSTIA) spanning the year of 2012. The seasonal variability of SST fronts around Hainan is strong, with the most intense SST front (featuring maximum SST gradient magnitude (GM)) observed in winter off the NE coast of Hainan. The summertime SST front (caused by wind-induced coastal upwelling) off the east coast of Hainan is less intense vs. the wintertime SST front off the NE coast of Hainan.
Chen B et al. (2016) [12] studied fronts of the Eastern Hainan and Western Guangdong Shelf (18–22° N, 109–113° E) from gridded GHRSST data (2006–2013) with 0.05° resolution. Fronts were detected with the Canny edge detection algorithm. The fronts’ location and intensity (maximum SST gradient magnitude GM) varied seasonally, largely in sync with the regional wind pattern driven by monsoons. The intensity of SST fronts peaked in winter at 3 °C/100 km and decreased to 2.1 °C/100 km, 1.7 °C/100 km, and 1.4 °C/100 km in spring, summer, and fall, respectively.
Qiu CH et al. (2017) [53] studied seasonal variability of the Guangdong coastal thermal front from daily gridded SST data with 0.05° resolution. The Operational Sea Surface Temperature and Sea Ice Analysis (OSTIA) data from 2015 were used to map the SST gradient magnitude (GM) in the Guangdong coastal zone. The Guangdong coastal SST fronts are strong in winter and weak in summer. Off eastern Guangdong, SST fronts are observed year-round. Off western Guangdong, SST fronts disappear in summer. The Pearl River plume and associated SST front extend NE in summer and SW in autumn in sync with seasonally reversing monsoon winds.
Yang CH et al. (2017) [74] analyzed oceanographic data collected during a CTD survey of the East Hainan Upwelling Front in July 2012, which were previously reported by Cao ZY et al. (2016) [10] (see above). The summertime front is confined between the 50 m and 100 m isobaths. There is a strong front along the 100 m isobath. Strong T/S fronts largely occur above the 25 m depth, with the strongest fronts above the 14 m depth. The vertical eddy diffusivity peaks at the front with the values of O (10−3) m2/s being about two orders of magnitude higher than the typical ocean values. The mixing rate peaks at the front axis and sea surface.
Zeng YG et al. (2022) [84] studied the East Guangdong Shelf Front in summer from three CTD surveys and high-resolution simulations with the regional ocean modeling system (ROMS). The CTD surveys were conducted in three consecutive summer seasons (5–23 June 2017; 11–26 June 2018; 28 June–16 July 2019). These surveys covered the entire coastal zone, with 14 high-resolution oceanographic sections, including a long section that ran far out into the Pearl River Estuary. The five long sections in the eastern part of the study area extended offshore to the 100 m isobath, while other sections covered the inshore zone. The horizontal SST gradient magnitude (GM) based on in situ data across the front peaked at 0.06 °C/km, thus exceeding gradients based on collocated synchronous satellite data.

5. Discussion

Several trends transpire upon a close inspection of Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, Table 5 and Table 6. Chronologically, the total number of Chinese-language papers in this particular field has almost tripled from 2006–2010 to 2011–2015. It is quite interesting and noteworthy that this abrupt increase occurred several years prior to a rapid increase in English-language papers on the same subject. Thematically, papers on remote sensing dominate the Chinese-language literature on oceanic fronts. Numerous studies of SST fronts in the Bohai, Yellow, East China, and northern South China Seas were published. Most of these studies are based on widely available SST data provided by AVHRR and MODIS, while SST data provided by radiometers from other satellite missions are under-utilized. There are very few studies of chlorophyll fronts using ocean color data, which are generally as easily available as SST data. Moreover, satellite altimetry data on sea surface height (SSH) are barely utilized. Regionally, the overwhelming majority of studies are focused on the China Seas, which is fully justified. However, the paucity of studies centered on the open Northwest Pacific is difficult to explain and hard to justify given the proximity and importance of this region to China. Despite the proliferation of remote sensing studies of ocean fronts and availability of advanced front-detection algorithms, the repertoire of various algorithms used by most researchers is very limited. Most researchers resort to rather simple gradient methods that have been traditionally used since the advent of the satellite era. Fortunately, the development and improvement of front-detection algorithms is gaining speed, which is commendable. However, the current lack of rigorous comparison and validation studies of such algorithms is notable. As ocean front detection becomes a mature field, algorithm comparison, testing, and validation studies should be promoted. In situ data have been traditionally used in conjunction with satellite data. The widespread use of WOD13 (World Ocean Database 2013) published by the National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC/NOAA) had a positive impact, especially when such data were analyzed together with concurrent and collocated satellite data. The latest major release of this database is World Ocean Database 2018 (WOD18), which includes 16 million oceanographic casts (https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/world-ocean-database (accessed on 25 July 2023)). The next release of the World Ocean Atlas based on the updated World Ocean Database is expected in October 2023 (Tim Boyer, NOAA, personal communication).

6. Conclusions

This review demonstrated that the body of knowledge contained in Chinese-language publications on the descriptive physical oceanography of marine fronts is a valuable addition to papers published in international English-language journals. While the total number of English-language publications skyrocketed recently, we found that the total number of Chinese-language papers in this particular field abruptly increased (almost tripled) several years prior to this. While our review only covered the last 40+ years (1982–2023), there is no doubt that valuable contributions to this field were made by Chinese oceanographers long before the 1980s and published in Chinese journals that are not yet digitized, and hence not easily accessible, especially to international readers worldwide. Any efforts should be organizationally, logistically, and financially encouraged and supported to digitize and make available those legacy contributions to present-day researchers, teachers, and society at large.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, I.M.B. and X.-T.S.; Methodology, I.M.B. and X.-T.S.; Data Procurement and Curation: X.-T.S.; Writing–original draft, I.M.B.; Writing—review and editing, X.-T.S. and I.M.B.; Supervision, I.M.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Both authors are supported by Zhejiang Ocean University. No special funding for this study was obtained.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The original manuscript was meticulously edited by Daphne Johnson (NOAA, retired). It was further improved thanks to the comments made by three anonymous reviewers.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Table 1. Observational studies of oceanic fronts published in Chinese-language journals.
Table 1. Observational studies of oceanic fronts published in Chinese-language journals.
No.First AuthorYearRegionSubject
[8]BAO Dao-Yang2017Yangtze ROFISalinity intrusion and river discharge
[9]CAO Pei-Kui1996Yangtze ROFISuspended particle front and transport
[10]CAO Zhi-Yong2016NSCSEast Hainan Upwelling Front
[11]CHEN Biao2002GlobalFront detection from spaceborne SAR images
[12]CHEN Biao2016NSCSSST fronts east of Hainan
[13]CHEN Biao2018GlobalSST fronts
[14]CHEN Shen-Liang2001Yangtze ROFIBarrier effect of plume front
[15]DANG Zhen-Zhong2016ECSKuroshio temperature front from in situ data
[16]GAO Guo-Ping2003SOCFronts along Australia-Antarctica sections
[17]GUO Bing-Huo1995ECSWavelike frontal features and their kinematics
[18]HAN Yan-Song2023YS, ECSShandong Peninsula front; Sedimentation
[19]HE Yan2011GIN SeasDistributions and seasonal variations of fronts
[20]HONG Ying1999NSCSSummertime shelf-slope front in Taiwan Strait
[21]HU Fang-Xi1995Yangtze ROFISalinity fronts in the Changjiang River estuary
[22]HU Jian-Yu2000Taiwan StraitSurface waters in Taiwan Strait in August 1998
[23]HUANG Wei-Gen2006ECS, NSCSThermal fronts in Taiwan Strait
[24]KUANG Cui-Ping2022Yangtze ROFISalinity front’s response to Yangtze’s discharge
[25]LI An-Zhou2017GlobalFront detection
[26]LI Ting-Ting2018GlobalFront detection from SAR images
[27]LI Li2000NSCSSouthern Taiwan Strait
[28]LI Wei2011aOff TaiwanKuroshio front east of Taiwan
[29]LI Wei2011bOff TaiwanKuroshio front east of Taiwan
[30]LI Yu-Yang2007KuroshioDetection of Kuroshio front
[31]LIN Chuan-Lan1986ECSKuroshio Front and fisheries
[32]LIU Bao-Yin1982ECSKuroshio SST fronts
[33]LIU Chuan-Yu2009Yellow SeaSST fronts
[34]LIU Dong-Yan2022China SeasReview of shelf fronts and their ecology
[35]LIU Feng-Yue1989Yellow SeaYellow River (Huanghe) plume front
[36]LIU Jian-Bin2015aSOCSeasonal variability of the Antarctic Polar Front
[37]LIU Jian-Bin2015bInd. OceanSpatial and temporal variations of SST fronts
[38]LIU Jian-Bin2016aAlboran SeaAlboran Sea front
[39]LIU Jian-Bin2016bBenguelaBenguela Upwelling front
[40]LIU Jian-Bin2016cGIN SeasDenmark Strait Front
[41]LIU Lin2012SOCOcean–atmosphere interaction over fronts
[42]LIU Hao2007Bohai SeaStratification and tidal fronts (model)
[43]LIU Peng2017Arabian SeaUpwelling fronts
[44]LIU Peng2018Equatorial PacificSpace–time variability of fronts
[45]LIU Xing-Quan2015Yangtze ROFICirculation and temperature structure
[46]LU Xiao-Ting2013China SeasFeature models
[47]LUO Lin2003NSCSThermal fronts in Beibu Gulf
[48]MAO Zhi-Chang1995Yangtze ROFISalinity fronts
[49]NING Xiu-Ren2004Yangtze ROFIHangzhou Bay bioproductivity front
[50]PING Bo2013KuroshioFront detection (new method)
[51]PING Bo2014Bohai SeaFront detection using BJ-1 satellite data
[52]PU Shu-Zhen1994SOCDrake Passage
[53]QIU Chun-Hua2017NSCSGuangdong coastal thermal front
[54]QU Jie2016SOCSeasonal variability of the Sub-Antarctic Front
[55]QU Xiang-Yu2020GlobalFront tracking algorithm for AUVs
[56]REN Shi-He2015China SeasReview of fronts and frontal forecasting
[57]SHI Ying-Ni2018ECSKuroshio front detection from ocean color
[58]SHI Zhong2002Yangtze ROFISecondary plume front
[59]SUN Gen-Yun2012BS, YS, ECSSST front detection in the East China Seas
[60]SUN Xiang-Ping1992KuroshioThermal fronts on the Kuroshio’s left side
[61]TANG Yu-Xiang1992ECSKuroshio front
[62]TANG Yu-Xiang1996ECSSeasonal variability of SST fronts
[63]WANG Yong-Zhi2013YS, ECSShandong Peninsula front and sedimentation
[64]WEI Hao1993Yellow SeaTidal-mixing fronts in the southern Yellow Sea
[65]WEI Qin-Sheng2010Yellow SeaFronts and their ecological effects
[66]WEI Qin-Sheng2011Yellow SeaFronts and their ecological effects
[67]WU Jie2016Yangtze ROFISuspended sediment fronts from GOCI data
[68]WU Qu-Ran2015GlobalFront detection: Improvement and validation
[69]WU Yun-Long2022Yangtze ROFISalinity fronts in dry season
[70]XU Jia-Jing2021Yangtze ROFIChlorophyll-a and plume front, summer 2019
[71]XU Mi-Mi2012ECSOcean-to-atmosphere forcing over SST front
[72]XU Su-Qin2015China SeasSpace–time variability of SST fronts
[73]XUE Cun-Jin2007GlobalFront detection using wavelet analysis
[74]YANG Chun-Hua2017NSCSEast Hainan Upwelling Front in summer
[75]YANG Fan2023ECSKuroshio front
[76]YANG Hai-Jun1998SCSSeasonal variability of thermal fronts
[77]YANG Ting-Long2021Japan SeaSpace–time variability of SST fronts
[78]YANG Wei2020SOCFront locations in the Southwest Pacific
[79]YANG Yang2012YS, ECSSuspended sediment sub-front
[80]YING Zhi-Fu1994NSCSZhujiang Estuary front and sedimentation
[81]YU Jie2020NSCSSST fronts
[82]YUAN Ping2019BS, YS, ECSFronts and sediment transport/deposition
[83]ZANG Zheng-Chen2015Yellow SeaFronts and sediment transport/deposition
[84]ZENG Yi-Gang2022NSCSEast Guangdong Shelf Front in summer
[85]ZHANG Ran2016ECSSeasonal variability of SST fronts
[86]ZHANG Wei2014GlobalFront detection (new method)
[87]ZHAO Bao-Hong2012SCSInter-annual variability of salinity front
[88]ZHAO Bao-Ren1985Yellow SeaTidal mixing fronts; Huanghai cold water mass
[89]ZHAO Bao-Ren1987aYellow SeaFronts and the Huanghai cold water mass
[90]ZHAO Bao-Ren1987bYellow SeaTidal mixing fronts in the Huanghai Sea
[91]ZHAO Bao-Ren1992Yellow SeaTidal mixing front along the 34° N section
[92]ZHAO Bao-Ren1993Yellow SeaShallow water front off the Subei Shoal
[93]ZHAO Bao-Ren2001Bohai SeaTidal mixing fronts
[94]ZHAO Ning2016NW PacificFrontogenesis and frontolysis
[95]ZHENG Shu2017NSCSPearl River Estuary front
[96]ZHENG Yan-Ming2009Yangtze ROFISalinity plume front in summer-autumn 2004
[97]ZHENG Yi-Fang1985YS, ECSSpatial distribution of fronts
[98]ZHOU Feng2008Yellow SeaTidal mixing fronts in the Huanghai Sea
[99]ZHOU Run-Jie2022SOCStatistical characteristics of major fronts
[100]ZHU Feng-Qin2014SCSSpace–time variability of SST fronts
[101]ZHU Jian-Rong2003Yangtze ROFIYangtze Shoal and plume front, August 2000
[102]ZHUANG Wei2003NSCSSurface T and S in July–August 2000
Notes: Acronyms: No., Reference number; BS, Bohai Sea; YS, Yellow Sea; ECS, East China Sea; SCS, South China Sea; NSCS, Northern SCS; GIN, Greenland-Iceland-Norwegian [Seas]; SOC, Southern Ocean; ROFI, Region of Freshwater Influence; TS, Taiwan Strait.
Table 2. Temporal distribution of papers from Table 1.
Table 2. Temporal distribution of papers from Table 1.
Years1982–19901991–19951996–20002001–20052006–20102011–20152016–20202021–2023
Papers71069822249
Table 3. Regional distribution of papers from Table 1.
Table 3. Regional distribution of papers from Table 1.
RegionNo. of Papers
Global8
China Seas4
Bohai Sea5
Yellow Sea17
East China Sea16
Yangtze River Estuary and Plume14
South China Sea3
Northern South China Sea13
Kuroshio6
Japan Sea1
Taiwan Strait1
Northwest Pacific1
Equatorial Pacific1
Southern Ocean7
North Atlantic: GIN Seas2
North Atlantic: Alboran Sea1
South Atlantic: Benguela1
Indian Ocean1
Indian Ocean: Arabian Sea1
Table 4. Main subject areas of papers from Table 1.
Table 4. Main subject areas of papers from Table 1.
SubjectNo. of Papers
Remote sensing: Spatial and temporal variability of fronts48
Remote sensing: Front-detection algorithms12
Long-term climatology of fronts from in situ and satellite data 28
Descriptive oceanography of fronts from in situ data (ship surveys and sections)26
River plume fronts 16
Ocean–atmosphere interaction over marine fronts2
Physical fronts and bioproductivity 5
Physical fronts and their impact on sediment transport and deposition8
Table 5. Principal studies of space–time variability of oceanic fronts (from papers in Table 1).
Table 5. Principal studies of space–time variability of oceanic fronts (from papers in Table 1).
Source and Ref. No.Subject
Cao ZY et al. (2016) [10]Ship survey of the East Hainan Upwelling Front in July 2012
Chen B et al. (2016) [12]Fronts of the Eastern Hainan and Western Guangdong Shelf (18–22° N, 109–113° E) from gridded SST data (2006–2013) with 0.05° resolution
Chen B et al. (2018) [13]Global review of SST fronts; Climatology of China Seas’ SST fronts
Gao GP et al. (2003) [16]CTD/XBT sections between Zhongshan Station (Antarctica) and Fremantle (Australia) in 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002; Locations and main characteristics of all major fronts (subtropical, subantarctic, polar, and slope)
Han YS et al. (2023) [18]Long-term (2011–2020) monthly climatology of the Shandong Peninsula Front from SST data with 0.01° resolution
He Y, Zhao JP (2011) [19]Long-term (1953–2002) monthly climatology of fronts in GIN Seas from HydroBase 2 gridded data with 0.25° resolution
Hong Y, Li L (1999) [20]Ship survey of fronts in northern SCS, August-September 1994
Hu JY et al. (2000) [22]Ship survey of fronts in the Taiwan Strait, August 1998
Huang WG et al. (2006) [23]Fronts in the Taiwan Strait from AVHRR SST, 1989–2001
Li L et al. (2000) [27]Review of fronts in southern Taiwan Strait from in situ and remote sensing data
Liu CY, Wang F (2009) [33]Long-term (1985–2002) seasonal climatology of the Yellow Sea SST fronts from AVHRR Pathfinder monthly and 8-day data
Liu DY et al. (2022) [34]Review of shelf fronts in the China Seas
Liu JB, Zhang YG (2015a) [36]Long-term (1955–2012) seasonal climatology of the Antarctic Polar Front from WOD13 gridded data with 0.25° resolution
Liu JB, Zhang YG (2015b) [37]Long-term (1955–2012) seasonal climatology of tropical fronts (along 5° S and 15° S) in the South Indian Ocean from WOD13 gridded data with 0.25° resolution
Liu JB, Zhang YG (2016c) [40]Long-term (1955–2012) seasonal climatology of temperature and salinity fronts in the Denmark Strait from WOD13 gridded data with 0.25° resolution
Liu P et al. (2017) [43]Long-term (1955–2012) seasonal climatology of the Arabian Sea Upwelling Front from WOD13 gridded data with 0.25° resolution
Liu P et al. (2018) [44]Long-term seasonal climatology of temperature fronts in the Equatorial Pacific from WOD13 gridded data
Pu SZ et al. (1994) [52]Review of circumpolar fronts in the Drake Passage
Qiu CH et al. (2017) [53]Seasonal variability of the Guangdong coastal thermal front from daily gridded SST data with 0.05° resolution
Qu J et al. (2016) [54]Long-term (1955–2012) seasonal variability of the Subantarctic Front from WOD13 gridded data with 0.25° resolution
Ren SH et al. (2015) [56] Review of fronts in the China Seas
Tang YX (1996) [62]Seasonal variability of temperature fronts in the ECS from historical in situ data (1934–1988)
Wang YZ et al. (2013) [63] Shandong Peninsula Front: Seasonal variability and its impact on sediment transport and deposition
Wei QS et al. (2011) [66]Biochemical and physical fronts of western Yellow Sea from CTD ship survey in summer 2006
Wu J et al. (2016) [67]Suspended sediment fronts in the Yellow and East China Seas from GOCI satellite data in 2012–2013
Xu JJ et al. (2021) [70]Physical and biochemical fronts of the Yangtze River Estuary and freshwater discharge region in summer 2019
Xu MM et al. (2012) [71]Atmospheric response to an SST front in the ECS
Xu SQ et al. (2015) [72]Thermal fronts of the China Seas: Review and monthly statistics of SST fronts from OSTIA data (2006–2012)
Yang CH et al. (2017) [74]CTD survey of the East Hainan Upwelling Front in July 2012
Yang TL et al. (2021) [77]Fronts of the Japan Sea from SODA reanalysis, 1980–2015
Yang W et al. (2020) [78]Southern Ocean fronts in the Southwest Pacific from XCTD sections in 2013–2018 and MODIS SST data
Yang Y, Pang CG (2012) [79]Suspended sediment fronts in the East China Seas and Taiwan Strait from SeaWiFS data, 1998–2002
Yu J et al. (2020) [81]Long-term monthly climatology of SST fronts in the northern SCS in 2003–2017
Yuan P et al. (2019) [82]HYCOM-derived temperature and salinity fronts in the East China Seas and their impact on sediment transport and deposition
Zeng YG et al. (2022) [84]East Guangdong Shelf Front in summer from CTD surveys and ROMS simulation
Zhao BH et al. (2012) [87]Interannual variability of salinity fronts in the SCS from the SODA reanalysis, 1958–2007
Zhao BR (1985) [88]Vertical structure of tidal mixing fronts in the Yellow Sea
Note: Ref. No. is the reference number of the source listed in the References.
Table 6. Papers on front-detection algorithms (from Table 1).
Table 6. Papers on front-detection algorithms (from Table 1).
Source and Ref. No.Subject
Li AZ et al. (2017) [25]Comparison of algorithms for front detection in satellite imagery with examples from the ECS and northern SCS
Li TT et al. (2018) [26] Front detection in SAR imagery and comparison with SST fronts east of Hainan Island using ENVISAT’s ASAR and SST data
Ping B et al. (2013) [50]Front-detection algorithm and its application to the Kuroshio
Ping B et al. (2014) [51]Front-detection algorithms: Comparison in the Bohai Sea
Qu XY, Li YP (2020) [55]Front-tracking algorithm for AUVs
Shi YN et al. (2018) [57]Front detection from ocean color vs. SST (Kuroshio region)
Sun GY et al. (2012) [59]Front detection with Jensen–Shannon divergence off East China
Wu QR et al. (2015) [68]Front-detection algorithm; Guangdong coastal front
Xue CJ et al. (2007) [73]Front detection using wavelet analysis
Zhang W et al. (2014) [86] Front detection based on Canny and mathematical morphology
Note: Ref. No. is the reference number of the source listed in the References.
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Shen, X.-T.; Belkin, I.M. Observational Studies of Ocean Fronts: A Systematic Review of Chinese-Language Literature. Water 2023, 15, 3649. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15203649

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Shen X-T, Belkin IM. Observational Studies of Ocean Fronts: A Systematic Review of Chinese-Language Literature. Water. 2023; 15(20):3649. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15203649

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Shen, Xin-Tang, and Igor M. Belkin. 2023. "Observational Studies of Ocean Fronts: A Systematic Review of Chinese-Language Literature" Water 15, no. 20: 3649. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15203649

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