Food System Governance in the Cambodian Mekong Delta: Food Production, Food Security, Migration, and Indebtedness

Abstract

Despite the government’s active promotion of rice production, a significant portion of the population still faces food insecurity. While existing literature often highlights the success of achieving rice surplus, few studies delve into the connections between rice surplus and food security, and critically analyze why food security is persistent. In addressing this issue, the study investigates the underlying causes of food insecurity amidst the government’s efforts to increase rice production. The study entails a comprehensive review of existing literature and an examination of food security in three provinces in the Cambodian Mekong Delta. It concludes that while rice intensification has led to increased rice production available for consumption, challenges persist in terms of access to and utilization of rice for food consumption. These challenges are attributed to increased production costs with minimal profit margins, indebtedness, migration, land grabs, water conflicts, and lack of institutional integration in food systems, compounded by the effects of climate change and environmental degradation. As a result, a farming household with one hectare of farmland cannot produce enough rice for food consumption. Consequently, young people opt to sell off their land to settle debts and seek employment opportunities in urban and overseas areas.

1. Introduction

Cambodia is an agrarian country, with a majority of the population residing in rural areas and relying on agriculture for food and income [1]. The primary sources of food for the Khmer society are rice and fish [2]. However, Cambodia is prone to natural disasters such as floods and droughts, which can devastate crops and disrupt food production. Climate change is exacerbating these risks, making it more challenging to ensure stable food supplies [3]. The hydropower and infrastructure development in the Mekong River Basin has altered the hydrological regime of the Mekong River and Tonle Sap Lake (TSL), affecting fishery productivity and the food of the rural population [4]. Land grabs and forced evictions have displaced communities from their traditional farming lands, disrupting their access to food sources and livelihoods [5]. Poverty, lack of access to resources, and limited infrastructure contribute to food insecurity for many rural households [6]. Furthermore, dependence on rice cultivation also poses risks, as it can leave households vulnerable to fluctuations in rice prices and yields [7].

Rice holds a significant role as a staple food in Cambodia. Enhancing rice production and productivity is essential for improving food security in the country. Since 2015, the Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) has been actively promoting rice production for export [8]. The intensification of rice farming has led to an increase in the number of rice farming seasons, now occurring 2–3 times per year instead of just once. The production of rice has increased by 13% between 2017 and 2023, rising from 10.5 million tons in 2017 to 12 million tons in 2023. In 2023, around seven million tons were consumed domestically, while the remaining five million tons were available for export [9].

Despite the rise in rice production, food security remains a significant concern for the Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC). A significant proportion of the population still struggles with food insecurity [10], affecting an estimated 25% of the total population [11]. While a considerable amount of literature and reports highlight the success of achieving rice surplus, only a limited number delve into the connections between rice surplus and food security and critically analyze why food security remains a concern. In addressing this issue, the study investigates the underlying causes of food insecurity when the government augments rice production. The study involves a review of existing literature and an examination of food security in three provinces in the Cambodian Mekong Delta. The findings of the study contribute to knowledge production on food security and enhance food system governance.

The Cambodian Mekong Delta (CMD) is a vital food-producing region that sustains the livelihoods of many rural households. However, CMD faces several challenges, such as a growing population, development pressure, and climate change, which negatively affect the region’s food environment, agricultural productivity, and food production [12]. Furthermore, food security and nutrition continue to be significant concerns in the CMD, and are further exacerbated by natural shocks, environmental degradation, and weak food system governance [13].

2. Theoretical Framework of Food Security and Food System Governance

The food system encompasses the food system environments, production processes, governance, and distribution to consumers. It involves a wide range of actors and activities [14,15]. According to Ericksen [16], the food system consists of the food system environments, drivers of food production, the food system activities, and the food system outcomes. Friend et al. [17] emphasize that the food system, including the food system environments, food system activities, and food system outcomes, is undergoing change due to four driving forces: (1) actors and power; (2) discourse and narratives; (3) access to and control over productive resources; and (4) institutions. They highlight the role of actors’ values, interests, and power in driving change within food systems. Additionally, actors use discourses and narratives to influence the interests of certain actors involved in systems change. Access to and control over key productive resources also play a significant role in driving change. Lastly, formal and informal institutional arrangements play a crucial role in mediating access and control of resources [17] (Figure 1).

The food system comprises sub-systems such as farming, water management, fishery, and aquaculture, which interact with other crucial systems like energy, trade, and health to produce food [14,15]. Manhar et al. [18] present two key sub-food systems: (i) natural and (ii) cultivated food systems. The natural food system encompasses rivers, lakes, forests, and mountains, which are valuable for accessing nutrient-rich foods, and can enhance households’ resilience to unexpected events. So et al. [19] present the Mekong River System as a natural food system, supplying fish and edible aquatic plants to feed millions of people in the Mekong Region. The Mekong River is a hugely productive fishery, estimated to yield some 2.32 million tonnes annually [19], accounting for around 20% of global inland fish catch [20]. The cultivated food system is quite diverse and includes various practices, such as farming, fruit and vegetable gardening, livestock raising, fishing, and aquaculture. It is intimately connected to the wild natural food environment. Agriculture is a cultivated food system that produces staple crops as the primary food production, relying on land, fertilizer, seeds, and water. What is fascinating is how all these practices work together to provide us with a balanced diet and contribute to our food security [21].

The food system activities encompass the production, distribution, and consumption of food products derived from agriculture, forestry, or fisheries, along with various related economic, societal, and environmental activities. Human manipulation of natural and cultivated food systems meets the dietary and other needs of humans. Furthermore, humans alter the natural food system to cultivate food through practices such as rice farming, fishing, livestock rearing, and vegetable growing [16]. The food supply chains depend on interconnected ecological, human, energy, and economic systems to facilitate the production and distribution of food while sustaining livelihoods at all stages of the process, from production to distribution [14, 15,22]. Multiple actors with different levels of influence, interests, values, and agency play a role in the production, distribution, and consumption of food. The activities within the food system are also shaped by ideologies, discourses, and narratives that validate or invalidate the interests of certain actors within the food system.

The activities within the food system play a crucial role in achieving food security outcomes [14,22]. Food security comprises four essential dimensions: (i) availability—ensuring an adequate and consistent food supply at the national or household level; (ii) accessibility—ensuring that individuals and households have the economic and physical means to obtain food, taking into account factors such as income, food prices, transportation infrastructure, and market access; (iii) utilization—ensuring that people can effectively utilize the food they have access to, including factors such as nutrition knowledge, food safety, sanitation, and access to clean water; and (iv) stability—ensuring that access to food is secure over time, not just in the present moment, and involves mitigating risks such as price volatility, natural disasters, conflicts, and other disruptions that can affect food availability and access [14,22]. Furthermore, the outcomes of the food system are influenced by the patterns of access to and control over key productive resources [23]. Finally, formal and informal institutional arrangements play a crucial role in mediating access and control over resources, which in turn impact the outcomes of the food system [24,25,26].

The discussion of food security often overlooks the “right to food,” despite the central importance of the four elements. These elements do not encompass the legal interpretations of the “right to food,” particularly omitting the aspects of ‘agency’ and ‘sustainability’ [27]. Agency can be understood as the freedom to pursue important goals or values, extending beyond mere access to resources to include empowerment [28]. This refers to individuals’ capacity to improve their quality of life and participate in activities that influence broader societal frameworks, including the ability to voice opinions and impact policies [29]. Sustainability, on the other hand, involves food system practices that sustain ecosystems in the long term, while interacting with economic and social systems to uphold food security and nutrition [30,31,32].

The assurance of food security is a fundamental human right that plays a crucial role in promoting health, well-being, and sustainable development [33]. The right to food goes beyond being fed during emergencies; it encompasses the right of all individuals to have appropriate legal frameworks and strategies in place to ensure access to an adequate food supply [34]. Amartya Sen [35] posits that food insecurity can persist even when agricultural yields are high, due to persistent low incomes among certain groups, while others experience rising incomes. Achieving food security requires addressing fundamental issues such as poverty, inequality, inadequate infrastructure, environmental degradation, and conflicts. This involves promoting sustainable agriculture, improving nutrition, strengthening social safety nets, and enhancing resilience to external shocks [36]. It encompasses the comprehensive governance of water, land, agriculture, fishery, irrigation, and natural resource management [37], which are influenced by factors such as actors and power dynamics, institutions, discourses, narratives, and access to and control over resources in food system activities and outcomes [38].

The food system involves various interactions, negotiations, conflicts, and cooperative decision-making processes related to food production, distribution, and consumption [39,40]. However, the governance of this system has been fragmented, often following a sectoral and top-down approach. Friend et al. [17] emphasize the significance of fisheries in the Mekong River Basin as a food source for the people in the region. Unfortunately, fisheries have been overlooked in the food system, leading to the damming of the Mekong for electricity generation. In Cambodia, water management falls under the Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology (MOWRAM), whereas the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries (MAFF) holds authority over rice production and fisheries, with no specific mandate concerning water resources [17].

3. Materials and Methods

Cambodia has a total area of 181,035 km², and agricultural land occupies 4.5 million hectares, which accounts for 25% of the country’s total land area [41]. The country’s wetlands cover about 30% of its land and are home to a vast freshwater fishery that includes migratory species in the Tonle Sap [42,43]. The Cambodian Mekong Delta (CMD), which spans 35,839 km², excluding the Tonle Sap River’s drainage basin and the Great Lake, is situated between the midpoint of Kratie and Kampong Cham provinces and the border of Cambodia and Vietnam. CMD comprises channels with a total length of 99 km, which split into two rivers in Phnom Penh: the Mekong River on the left and the Bassac River on the right [44]. The CMD includes four provinces—Prey Veng, Kandal, Takeo, and Svay Rieng. As of 2021, approximately 7 million people call CMD their home [45].

The four provinces of CMD cover 14,591 km², home to about four million or 25% of the total population. Agricultural land constitutes 72% of the total land, and 93% is for rice farming. The CMD contributes about 31% to the country’s rice production. Prey Veng is among four CMD provinces, covering 4883 km², of which agricultural land constitutes 79% of the total land area. The province comprises Cambodia’s typical flat, wet region, enveloping rice fields and other plantations, and also encompasses one of the country’s most significant rivers, the mighty Mekong. Also, Takeo is another CMD province located in the southern region of Cambodia, bordered by Vietnam in the south, covering 3563 km², of which 74% of the total land area is agricultural. Last, Kampong Thom Province is located in TSL with a total land area of 13,814 km², of which agricultural land constitutes 20%, and large areas fall in TSL.

3.1. Study Sites

The conceptual framework described earlier provides a valuable tool for examining food system governance in CMD. The research was conducted in three provinces in the CMD: Prey Veng, Takeo, and Kampong Thom. Four specific sites were selected for studying food system governance in these provinces: Beung Sneh and Beung Phlang in Prey Veng, Ta Soung in Takeo, and Beung Ream in Kampong Thom Provinces (Figure 2).

Beung Sneh is a freshwater lake in Prey Veng Province, covering 3924 hectares, connecting to the Mekong River, surrounded by 44 villages from 7 communes in 4 districts. Four CFis, two FWUCs, and one Community-based Eco-tourism (CBET) have been established in the Beung Sneh Lake (BSL).

Beung Phlang is located in Ampil Krav Commune in Sithor Kandal District, Prey Veng Province, with five villages, home to about 17,572 people from 1238 HHs; 85% are farming and 20% are fishing, among which three villages have established the CFR known as Beung Phlang CFR. The main areas of focus in this study were the CFR site and the Vaiko Irrigation scheme in the Ampil Krav commune.

Ta Soung is a Farmer Water User Community (FWUC) comprising 970 member households from 15 villages in four communes in Prey Kabbas District, Takeo Province. This FWUC pumps water from the Prek Ambel River, a tributary of the Bassac River, and it is associated with four Community Fishery Institutions (CFIs) responsible for managing former fishing lot no. 20 in the Prek Ambel River in Takeo Province. The study focuses on the CFIs and their relationship with the Ta Soung Irrigation scheme.

Beung Ream is a Community Fish Refuge (CFR) in Kakoh Commune, Santuk District in Kampong Thom Province, home to about 3325 households living in 10 villages, which is connected to the Taing Krasaing Irrigation Scheme (TKIS). FWUC has been established in TKIS and Kakoh commune. The study looks at the CFR site and the sub-FWUC of Kakoh Commune as part of the Taing Krasaing irrigation scheme.

3.2. Research Team

The research was conducted between December 2022 and December 2023. The research team consisted of experienced members from renowned organizations such as WorldFish in Cambodia, the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in Sri Lanka, the Inland Fishery Research and Development Institute (IFReDI), and the Fishery Administration Cantonments (FiACs) in Cambodia. The research team utilized a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches to collect comprehensive primary and secondary data from the study sites.

3.3. Data and Methods of Data Collection

The research team gathered both primary and secondary data. Secondary data refer to information previously gathered by others, usually from sources such as books, journals, government publications, websites, databases, or other research studies at both national and provincial levels. The team frequently used secondary data to complement the primary data [46]. The collected secondary data included the number of community fisheries (CFis), Community Fish Refuges (CFRs), Farmer Water User Communities (FWUCs), and irrigation schemes. Additionally, secondary data on population, irrigation, rice farming, farmlands, fish catch, pesticide, and fertilizer usage by farmers were also obtained. These data were collected from various databases, including the commune database (2021) [47], the Community Fishery (CFi) and Community Fish Refuge (CFR) databases (2022) [48], the Irrigation System Database (CISIS) [49], District Offices, and Provincial Governments.

Primary data were collected, answering the research questions. Primary data refer to original data collected directly from the study sites through Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). These data are gathered firsthand by the research team specifically for their study [50]. Primary data collected include the rice yields, household rice production, pesticide and fertilizer use, the cost of rice production, migration, indebtedness, number of laborers, the water uses for rice farming, the fish catch, the performance of CFis, CFRs, and FWUCs.

The FGDs were conducted with FWUCs, CFRs, CFis, the ID Poor 1&2, and the non-ID Poor groups [51], with each discussion group comprising five to seven participants. Seven FGDs were conducted with CFis in the studied areas, followed by three FGDs with CFRs, six FGDs with FWUCs, and forty-eight FGDs with the ID Poor and the non-ID Poor. The Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) were carried out with 13 government agency representatives at the provincial levels, including officials from the Provincial Departments of Water Resources and Meteorology (PDWRAMs), Provincial Fishery Administration Cantonments (FiACs), District Offices of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment (DANREs), Commune Councilors, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in Prey Veng, Takeo, and Kampong Thom Provinces.

Table 1. Data collection using Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs).

Data Collection Methods	KIIs	FGDs with CFis/CFRs	FGDs with FWUCs	FGDs with ID Poors & Non-ID Poors
Beung Sneh	Chief of PDWRAM and two staff FiAC-PV Commune Chiefs of Prey Kandieng, Theay, Samrong and Damrei Poun	4 Focus Group Discussions with CFis: (1) Theay, (2) Samrong, (3) Damrei Poun; (4) Prey Kandieng	01 FGD with Chamcar Kyou FWUC 01 FGD with Private FWUC in Toap Sday Village/Theay Commune	15 FGDs in 05 villages in 05 Communes around Beung Sneh Lake, Prey Veng.
Beung Phlang		01 FGD with Beung Phlang CFR.	n/a	03 FGDs in Ampil Krau Commune, Prey Veng
Beung Ream	Deputy Chief of Provincial Departments of Water Resources and Meteorology. DANRE Officers in charge of Farmer Water User Communities, Kakoh Commune Administration, Chairman of Kakoh’s FWUC	02 FGDs with Beung Ream CFR.	03 FGDs of Beung Ream FWUC.	15 FGDs in 05 villages in Kakoh Commune, Santuk District, Kampong Thom.
Ta Soung	District Officers in charge of irrigation, agriculture and fishery	03 FGDs with 3 CFis in Prey Kabbas District.	01 FGD with Ta Soung FWUC.	15 FGDs in 05 villages three communes in Krey Kabbas District.
Total	13 participants	7 FGDs and 3 CFRs	6 FGDs	48 FGDs

provides an overview of the number of KIIs and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) conducted with CFis, CFRs, FWUCs, ID Poor 1&2, and non-ID Poor individuals in the study locations.

The research focused on assessing the collaborative efforts of Farmer Water User Committees (FWUCs), Community Fish Refuges (CFRs), and Community Fisheries (CFis) through Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) and Focused Group Discussions (FGDFs). Participants were also asked to provide insights into the impact of water usage by FWUCs on CFis/CFRs during three rice farming seasons, as well as the competition for water resources. The study emphasized the pivotal role of local authorities and proposed strategies to improve water governance in the areas under study. Additionally, Focused Group Discussions (FGDs) were conducted with members of different communities to examine the changes in water resources, agriculture, fishery, and food over the past 10–15 years and to explore their effects on the communities. Interviewees shared their perspectives on the improvements in water resources, fishery, rice farming, food, and livelihoods resulting from the establishment of irrigation systems, FWUCs, CFis, and CFRs.

3.4. Data Analysis

The information gathered from the FGDs, KIIs, and secondary sources underwent analysis in Excel to produce percentages, figures, and tables. Alongside these quantitative data, qualitative information was also considered. We utilized the conceptual framework of food system governance and the food security concept to examine food security in the research locations, drawing on primary and secondary data.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. The Socio-Economic and Geographical Conditions of the Cambodian Mekong Delta (CMD)

Table 2. The socio-economic and geographical characteristics of the studied areas.

Site	Province	Commune	Number of Village	Number of Households	Number of Fishing Households	% of Fishing Households	Total No. of ID Poor 1&2	% of ID Poor 1&2	Rice Farming Area (ha) in the Commune	Total Wet Season Rice Farming Area		Total Dry Season Rice Farming Area		Agricultural Landholding (Hectare)/ Household
										Area (ha)	%	Area (ha)	%
1. Beung Phlang	Prey Veng	1	3	1238	248	20	224	18	3016	3016	100	5	0.2	2.44
2. Beung Sneh	Prey Veng	7	44	10,911	2093	19	1562	14	22,899	15,835	69	7064	31	2.10
3. Boeung Ream	Kampong Thom	1	10	3325	998	30	599	18	5099	5099	100	0	0	1.53
4. Ta Soung	Takeo	4	15	3731	1227	33	542	15	6349.50	2509	40	3840	60	1.70
Total	3	13	72	19,205	4566	24	2927	15	37,364	26,459	71	10,909	29	1.95
Source: [47]

presents detailed information on the socio-economic conditions of the studied areas, the farming areas, the number of farming and fishing households, the ID-Poor 1&2 groups, agricultural landholder size, and various waterbodies and irrigation schemes in the study area. The studied areas cover 37,364 ha of rice farming areas, of which the wet season rice farming (WSRF) areas constitute 71% of the total areas, and the dry season rice farming (DSRF) areas constitute 29%. It is home to about 19,205 households living in 72 villages, of which about 24% of total households are engaged in fishing, and the ID Poor 1&2 constitutes 15% of the total population.

Beung Sneh Lake (BSL) stands as the largest freshwater lake in Prey Veng, surrounded by 22,899 ha of rice farming areas and 44 villages, home to 10,911 households, of which about 19% of households are engaged in fishing and the ID Poor 1&2 constitutes 14% of the total population. The average agricultural landholder size is 2.10 ha. The BSL is linked to the Mekong River and has a water storage capacity of 80 million m³ during the rainy season. Furthermore, the Vaiko irrigation scheme, which spans across Prey Veng Province, is one of the largest in the country. Beung Phlang, a small waterbody connected to the Vaiko Scheme in Sithor Kandal District in Prey Veng Province, is also noteworthy.

The Prey Kabbas District in Takeo Province presents substantial potential for food production due to its extensive rice fields of 6350 ha and floodplain connected to the Bassac River, with an average agricultural landholding size of 1.70 ha per household. The Prek Ambel River (PAR) connects the floodplains and rice fields in Prey Kabbas to the Bassac River, where water and fish flow and migrate back and forth between these river systems. The Ta Soung Farmer Water User Community (FWUC) and four Community Fisheries (CFis) were established to support the livelihoods of farming and fishing communities in the studied areas. These are home to 3731 households living in 15 villages, of which fishing households account for 33% and the ID Poor 1&2 constitutes 15% of the total population.

Boeung Ream in Kampong Thom Province is another small waterbody in the Tonle Sap floodplain, linked to the Tang Krasaing Irrigation scheme (TKIS) constructed in 2015. Water from Beung Ream serves the purposes of rice farming and fisheries. It is surrounded by ten villages in Kakoh Commune, and it is home to about 3325 households, with the majority as farmers and 30% as fishing households, while 18% of households fall in the ID Poor 1&2 Categories (Table 2).

4.2. Food Systems

The CMD region relies heavily on rice farming and fishing as the primary food systems. With an abundance of river systems and expansive rice fields, the area yields a variety of produce such as rice, crops, vegetables, and livestock. The river system provides crucial water resources for wet and dry season rice farming and fisheries, ensuring a stable food supply for local communities [52].

The rice farming area is divided into three categories by local communities living near the river and floodplains, based on water availability and accessibility. First, there is the ‘srekrom’ or lower rice field, which is flooded by the river during the wet season. It is not suitable for rice farming at that time, but once the water recedes, farmers can cultivate recession rice there. Second, there is the ‘sreleu’ or upper rice field, which is not flooded by the river and relies on rainfall for farming. Third, there are the intermediate areas, known as ‘Srekandal’ or middle rice fields, which rely on both river water and rainfall. Wet season rice farming (WSRF) mainly takes place in Sreleu, while dry season rice farming (DSRF) is dominant in Srekrom and Srekandal. The wet season farming area makes up 71% of the total farming area, with the dry season farming area accounting for 29% (Table 2).

During the wet season from May to October, the BSL area is susceptible to flooding, rendering the lower rice fields unsuitable for cultivation and submerging the middle fields to a depth of less than 0.5 m. However, the upper rice fields remain unaffected, allowing farmers to continue rice cultivation. As the water recedes around November, farmers begin growing rice in the lower fields and utilize the remaining water for irrigation. Approximately 69% of the total rice farming area is suitable for WSRF, while 31% is suitable for DSRF (Table 2).

During the rainy season, the water level in the Prek Ambel River (PAR) in Prey Kabbas District, Takeo Province, rises due to the increasing water level in the Bassac River. Around 60% of the farmland is submerged in river water for approximately six months, rendering it unsuitable for WSRF but ideal for DSRF, also known as Srekrom. The remaining 40% of farmland, Sreleu, remains unaffected by flooding, allowing farmers to cultivate WSRF using rainfall as their primary water source. As the dry season arrives, the water recedes from the PAR floodplains, enabling farmers to cultivate the recessions or DRSF. Each household owns 2 hectares of farmland, but 31% of households in the area are landless and resort to fishing to supplement their incomes.

Beung Phlang, located in the Mekong floodplain, has historically faced frequent river flooding. Thanks to the introduction of irrigation systems, however, the occurrence of these floods has reduced, enabling local farmers to grow only WSRF. On the other hand, Beung Ream, situated in the floodplain of TSL, regularly contends with flooding from the flood pulse of Tonle Sap. This area is abundant in fisheries and sediments that are advantageous for agriculture. The farmland in Beung Ream has been divided into Sreleu, Srekandal, and Srekrom, but farmers only cultivate WSRF in Sreleu and Srekandal, neglecting Srekrom due to the high production costs and low yields.

The fishing system encompasses the river system and floodplain, connecting with rice fields. During the wet season following the rise of the water level, fish migrate from the Mekong River to Tonle Sap Lake, the floodplains of the Mekong River and Tonle Sap, and then to rice fields. The BSL, the Beung Phlang, Beung Ream, and floodplain areas of PAR in Ta Soung receive volumes of water and migratory fish species from the Mekong River. There, fish breed, spawn, and grow for the rest of the year. During the dry season, from November to March, fish return from BSL, Beung Phlang, Beung Ream, and PAR to the Mekong River and Tonle Sap Lake, respectively. These form the ecological system of the Mekong Delta. The BSL, the Beung Phlang, the Beung Ream, and the PAR in Ta Soung are rich in fisheries. Also, the rice fields around these studied waterbodies provide fish to farmers and fishermen, supplementing foods for households, which is a source of protein. However, fishing is small-scale for household consumption and uses small fishing gears. Approximately 24% of the total population is engaged in fishing, but the fishing population in Ta Soung community constitutes 33%, higher than other communities. In Beung Ream, fishing supplements around 30% of the population’s food requirements, whereas in BSL and Beung Phlang, fishing sustains approximately 19–20% of the local population (Table 2).

4.3. Food System Activities

4.3.1. Food Production

Water resources are available throughout the year but vary by month, depending on rainfall and water flows from the Mekong River. These resources have been extensively utilized for agriculture, particularly rice farming. In the study areas, traditionally before 2010, Cambodian agricultural households utilized the native rice varieties to cultivate wet season rice farming (WSRF) during the monsoon between May and October. WSRF relied heavily on rainfall and was labor-intensive. Farmers used draft animals to plow and harvest their rice fields. Also, no agrochemical inputs were applied to increase the rice yield. The cost of rice production was low, based on household capacity to invest in rice farming. The rice yield was around 2–3 tons per hectare, and the rice production was mainly for household consumption, with only a small surplus each year to save for food shortages. Hence, rice farming in Cambodia was considered underdeveloped compared with ASEAN countries.

Table 3. The Transformation of rice farming in Cambodia before and after 2015.

Description	Before 2015	After 2015
1. Rice farming	Farmers cultivated one rice crop a year—wet season rice farming, using transplanting and traditional farming equipment, and plowing with draft animals. Farming was labor-intensive and mainly for household food consumption, with rice as the main food for three meals a day.	Farmers own small farmlands, 1.95 ha on average per agricultural household with increased household members, and they transform the rice farming into 2–3 farming seasons, using rice broadcasting farming methods, heavy mechanizations, agrochemical inputs, increased agricultural loans, and heavy use of water resources. At the same, widespread migration has occurred, leading to labor shortage. Rice farming was mainly for informal rice trade with traders from Vietnam.
2. Seeds	Farmers selected their ownership locally and preserved it to be used for wet season rice farming	High-yield seeds, including imported seeds, such OM504, OM5451 from Vietnam. Farmers purchase seeds from seed distributors for about KHR 2000–2500 per kg.
3. Fertilizer (DAP and others)	No use of DAP, but uses of organic manure, such as cow manure. Farmers did not pay for the manure and other organic fertilizers, as locally available.	Heavy use of DAP and other fertilizers for about 5–7 bags (one bag for 50 kg) at the cost of USD 35/bag
4. Urea Fertilizer (46.00.00)	No uses of urea, but uses of organic manure, such as cow manure	Heavy use of urea fertilizers for about 3–5 bags (one bag for 50 kg) at the cost of USD 35/bag
5. Pesticide	No use of pesticides, only natural herbicides available locally	Heavy use of pesticides three times per rice farming season, with the approximate total cost of USD 60–100 per rice farming season. The use of pesticides is based on the instructions from sellers and depends on the effective use, with farmers sometimes and in some places mixing different types of pesticides together for one use.
6. Insecticide	No use of pesticides, only natural herbicides available locally.	Heavy use of insecticides to kill insects at the approximate total cost of USD 30–50 per farming season.
7. Hiring tractors for land preparation	Farmers relied on draft animals to plow the rice fields, and for harvesting and transportation. Farmers also raised draft animals in every house for farming as well as for manure.	Farmers rely on hiring tractors and farming machines, as they lack labor and increased the number of farming seasons. They hire tractors to plow the rice fields two times a season, and they also hire harvesting and threshing machines at a high cost. The average farming area per household is about 1.3 ha.
8. Transplantation cost for equipment and materials for rice fields	Farmers used draft animals for transportation	Farmers rely on hiring local transportation to transport their farming equipment and rice production from the fields to homes
9. Hiring labor to spray pesticides and fertilizer application	Farming was labor-intensive, with one rice farming season per year. Farmers used their labor to do the rice farming. They hired laborers from outside only during the transplanting and harvesting seasons. They would hire one or two persons (laborers), at the cost of KHR 15,000/day/person for periods of 5–7 days per season.	Migration is increasing in all places, thus so are the labor shortages. Thus, farming relies on agricultural machines. Therefore, every household hires and employs farming machines to for rice farming, with 2–3 rice farming seasons per year. These involve high cost, at about USD 800–1000 per hectare.
10. Transplantation cost for equipment and materials for rice fields	Farming relied on rainfall and water was available for one rice crop per year. Farmers did not pay fees for water use for rice farming.	Farming 2–3 rice seasons per year has resulted in overuse of water. Farmers have paid water fees to water suppliers who actually pump water from natural waterbodies such as rivers and lakes, and in some places use the groundwater. Water conflicts have occurred all over. The water fee ranges from USD 40 to USD 70 per hectare per rice farming season.
11. Rice Yield/Rice Production	The rice yield was 2.5–3 tons/ha. The rice production was for household consumption. Rice was the only main food item for the households. Failing to secure moderate rice yield resulted in family food shortage.	Rice farming at present has intensified, with high-yield rice varieties imported from Vietnam locally by farmers. It is cultivated for the rice trade, particularly to Vietnam. The rice yield is 4–6 tons per hectare. The price per kilogram of paddy rice is KHR 800–1000/kg.
Source: authors.

provides the narratives of rice production, the low cost, and yield of rice production before 2010 compared with the high cost and high yield of rice farming after 2015.

Since 2015, the Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) has initiated a national program to rehabilitate irrigation schemes nationwide to support rice farming and implemented a policy to promote rice exports. Consequently, Cambodian agricultural households have increasingly transitioned from traditional rainfed rice farming to irrigated agriculture, notably embracing the dry season rice farming (DSRF) method. This shift has entailed a departure from transplanting to broadcasting as the predominant rice farming approach.

In addition, there has been a notable shift from labor-intensive techniques to mechanized rice farming and from subsistence farming to commercial activities. Cambodian agricultural households have increased rice farming seasons to 2–3 times a year, using irrigated water for wet season rice farming (WSRF) and the first and second dry season rice farming (DSRF). The first DSRF starts from November to January, and the second DSRF starts from February to April. The high-yield rice varieties, with market availability, particularly the OM504, OM5451, and a few others, have been applied by Cambodian farmers to grow in WSRF and DSRF. The cultivating period of these rice varieties is only 90 days, and it yields around 4–6 tons per hectare, depending on the uses of agrochemical inputs and water availability.

As a result, farmers have used substantial amounts of pesticides and fertilizers to increase rice yields. Also, they have applied farming mechanization in response to increased rice farming seasons and a labor shortage following the increased migration in rural farming communities. The increased farming seasons have resulted in increased use of water for rice farming in the WSRF and DSRF. Farmers have paid fees for water use for rice farming for the first time in Cambodian farming history. However, water resources are overused, and this has led to water conflicts between farmers and farmers and farmers and fishermen. The above has led to the increased cost of rice production, and farmers have sought financial support from formal and informal moneylenders and micro-finance institutions to finance their rice farming business, but have ended up deeply in debt.

As a consequence, farmers seek to sell their rice yield after the rice harvesting seasons to rice traders in order for them to generate income, pay their debts, and secure money for the next farming season. The study found that most rice traders purchase rice from farmers to sell to Vietnamese traders, depending on the demands and market availability for rice in Vietnam. In so doing, Cambodian agricultural households must grow Vietnamese rice varieties (MO504 and OM5451). Consequently, farmers in the study areas of Cambodia have cultivated Vietnamese rice varieties in WSRF and DSRF and have been trading them with Vietnamese traders. However, these trading relationships have occurred in an informal manner between farmers and traders without the involvement and recognition from the governments of both sides, and, hence, Cambodian farmers continue to face challenges, including the low floating prices, a limited market for their rice products, and no market guarantees. Sometimes, Cambodian farming households produced more rice products, but Vietnamese traders did not purchase, which resulted in heavy losses. Limited state intervention in the rice trade has made Cambodian agricultural households vulnerable (Table 3).

Over time, farmers in various studied sites have made significant progress in their agricultural practices. Additionally, they have shifted towards mechanized rice farming, which is less labor-intensive and more beneficial for trading purposes. The number of tractors used in Prey Veng Province for plowing increased from 678 tractors in 2014 to 2446 in 2018. Kampong Thom has also seen a rise in tractor usage from 589 to 1322 during the same period. These changes are also taking place in Takeo Province. In addition, harvesting machines have become farming equipment for farmers to gather paddy rice. In Prey Veng, harvesting machines increased from 464 in 2014 to 1053 in 2018, while Kampong Thom increased from 130 to 342 machines during the same period. However, the number of harvesting machines has decreased in Takeo. The cost of hiring a harvesting machine, which includes packing, is approximately USD 100/ha.

The introduction of high-yield rice strains has led to an increase in fertilizer and pesticide usage. Around 73% of households within the study regions apply chemical fertilizers for rice farming year-round. A 50 kg bag of chemical fertilizer costs approximately USD 30, and farmers use 5–7 bags of fertilizers per hectare, resulting in an expenditure of USD 150–210 per hectare for fertilizer use. The chemical fertilizers are traded across borders from Vietnam to Cambodia and are readily available for purchase. Despite their accessibility, farmers have a limited understanding of the appropriate use of fertilizers and pesticides (

Table 4. Rice production in the study areas.

	Beung Sneh Lake	Beung Phlang	Beung Ream	Ta Soung
Seasonality	Farmers carry out wet and dry season rice farming.	Farmers carry out wet season rice farming.	Farmers carry out wet and dry season rice farming.	Farmers carry out wet and dry season rice farming.
Technology/ Mechanization/ pesticides/ fertilizer	High-yield rice variety (IR504, OM5451) from Vietnam. Farming three rice crops yearly 80% of farming households using fertilizers. 78% of farming households using pesticides	High-yield rice variety (IR504, OM5451) from Vietnam. local rice varieties Farming one rice crop—wet season rice. 81% of farming households using fertilizers. 81% of farming households using pesticides	High-yield rice variety (IR504, OM5451) from Vietnam. Farming three rice crops yearly 31% of farming households using fertilizers. 18% of farming households using pesticides	High-yield rice variety (IR504, OM5451) from Vietnam. 67% of farming household using fertilizers. 69% of farming households using pesticides
Labor/migration	Local migration—32%, oversea migration—3%. The aged population is farming—hiring agriculture. Mechanization—hiring tractors, harvesting machines	Local migration—28%, oversea migration—9%. Aged population is farming—hiring agriculture. Mechanization—hiring tractors, harvesting machines	Local migration—20%. Aged population is farming—hiring agriculture. Mechanization—hiring tractors, harvesting machines	Local migration—13%, oversea migration—1%. Aged population is farming—hiring agriculture. Mechanization—hiring tractors, harvesting machines
Capital/loans	Indebtedness—56%	Indebtedness—70%	Indebtedness—60%	Indebtedness—70%
Source: authors.

).

Approximately 70% of farming households utilize pesticides throughout the rice farming seasons. It typically involves applying pesticides 3–4 times per hectare until the rice has been harvested, with each application costing approximately USD 34/ha. Each farming household can expect to spend between USD 105 and 140/ha for pesticide use, including labor fees. Unfortunately, the use of pesticides has detrimental effects on aquatic life, such as fish, resulting in a decline in their population. Additionally, invasive snails can cause damage to paddy rice, highlighting the critical need for proper protection (Table 4).

Mechanization—hiring tractors, harvesting machines

The cultivation of three rice crops annually by farmers requires a significant amount of water. However, only 19% of farming households have access to irrigation systems. In Ta Soung, BSL, and Beung Ream, respectively, approximately 26%, 18%, and 17% of agricultural households access irrigated water for rice cultivation. Interestingly, about 42% of farmlands are irrigated during the dry season, while only 24% receive irrigation during the wet season. Water fees for irrigation range from USD 67 to 75/ha, with gravity-fed water costing approximately USD 63/ha and pumping costs ranging from USD 75 to 87/ha. In Ta Soung, FWUC determines the water fees to be paid by farmers based on expenses incurred in using electricity to pump water from the Prek Ambek River (PAR) into the irrigation canals, typically ranging from USD 50 to USD 65 per hectare.

Farmers in BSL and Beung Ream only pay water fees for the first DSRF between November and January because they receive sufficient water for irrigating their rice fields. They do not pay water fees for the WSRF between May and October as they depend on rainfall for rice cultivation. However, during the second DSRF, between February and April, there were water shortages. Approximately 50% of water users pay fees for water usage, but due to the practice of growing three rice crops annually, water use has reached a critical level. To irrigate DSRFs, farmers have resorted to pumping water from nearby sources like rivers, ponds, and lakes, with each household owning at least one water-pumping generator. Unfortunately, this has led to intense competition among farmers to pump water for irrigation, negatively impacting fisheries and aquatic systems.

Table 5. The comparative studies of the cost of rice production and the income by study site.

Description		Beung Sneh Lake			Ta Soung			Beung Ream			Beung Phlang
Farming Inputs	Unit	Quantity	Price (USD)	Total	Quantity	Price (USD)	Total	Quantity	Price (USD)	Total	Quantity	Price (USD)	Total
1. Seeds	kg/ha	350	0.61	213.5	320	0.61	195.2	350	0.61	213.5	300	0.61	183
2. Fertilizer (DAP and others)	Bag/ha	7	30	210	6	30	180	6	35	210	6	30	180
3. Urea Fertilizer (46.00.00)	Bag/ha	4	35	140	4	35	140	4	35	140	4	35	140
4. Pesticide	Bottle/ha	9	10	90	7	9	63	7	8.54	59.78	6	9	54
5. Insecticide	Bottle/ha	3	10	30	4	11	44	4	11	44	3	11	33
6. Hiring tractors for land preparation	Time/ha	2	30	60	2	35	70	2	34.15	68.3	2	35	70
7. Transplantation cost for equipment and materials for rice fields	Ha	1	10	10	1	10	10	1	10	10	1	10	10
8. Fertilizer application	Time/ha	3	10	30	4	10	40	3	9.5	28.5	3	10	30
9. Spraying fee for pesticides	Time/ha	6	10	60	6	10	60	6	9.5	57	6	10	60
10. Water Fee/Fuel for pumping water for irrigation	Seasons/ha	1	50	50	1	45	45	1	65	65	1	40	40
11. Harvest fee	Ha	1	75	75	1	75	75	1	70	70	1	75	75
12. Transportation of rice bags from the fields to houses	Bag/ha	70	0.75	52.5	76	0.73	55.48	73	0.73	53.29	72	0.73	52.56
Total Cost/ha (USD)				1021	Total Cost/ha (USD)		977.68	Total Cost/ha (USD)		1019.37	Total Cost/ha (USD)		927.56
Yield and gross income/ha	kg/Ha	5000	0.25	1250	5000	0.25	1250	5000	0.25	1250	5000	0.25	1250
Net Profit	USD			229			272.32			230.63			322.44

presents the cost of rice production and the income from rice farming per hectare and farming season. Agricultural households have applied twelve agricultural inputs in rice production per farming season. Rice seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and farming machines constitute a high percentage of the cost of rice production. The total number of inputs and the cost of each input vary from site to site. The farming households in Beung Sneh Lake (BSL) bear higher costs than the other studied sites. Rice farming in BSL is intensified compared with other locations. The total cost of rice production per hectare of rice farming area per season in the studied areas ranges between USD 925 and USD 1020. However, the rice production cost depends on climate conditions, drought, and flooding. It also depends on the power of negotiations between farmers and sellers of agricultural inputs and service providers. On the other hand, the income from rice farming is dependent on the rice yield. The rice yield in the second DSRF is lower than the WSRF and the first DSRF due to water shortages between February and April. On average, the rice yield across these farming seasons is around five tons per ha, and the price of paddy rice is about less than KHR 1000/kg. The total gross income is about USD 1250/ha. Thus, the total net profit per ha of rice farming areas across four studied sites ranges between USD 220 and USD 350 for three months. These suggest that the intensification of rice production has led to increased cost of production, but the net profit is small for agricultural households in the studied areas.

4.3.2. Food Consumption

Rice is the primary staple food in Cambodia and a daily dietary staple for rural households. Fish is the second most consumed food, typically eaten five days a week by agricultural households. In addition, wet season rice farming primarily caters to household consumption, utilizing local varieties. In the old days, agricultural households did not spend much on household food consumption. Indeed, each household consumed foods available in their areas, including fish caught from the rivers and lake, vegetables and fruits collected from around the house, and livestock raised by the households.

At present, agricultural households cultivate two to three rice crops per year, which makes them unable to cultivate other crops and vegetables and raise livestock. Instead, they rely on markets to supply them with any household food items required by household members. Furthermore, agricultural households maximize the amount of rice produced for sale by limiting household consumption. During the first DSRF, farmers sold nearly all rice produced to rice traders from Vietnam. During the second DSRF, potential water scarcity due to climate change and competition for water resources among farming households raises more concerns about rice yield. These could have adverse effects on rice yield, leading to a reduction in overall rice production towards the end of the season and significant losses. As a consequence, household rice consumption may also decrease.

The current trend of increased rural–urban and overseas migrations has exposed the rural population to urban food consumption culture and has transformed food habits into market-driven supplies and demands. With higher migration rates, many rural households are adapting to new food consumption practices, including fast food consumption, instant noodles, and beverages. Consequently, farmers rely more on markets to meet their food and household needs, as they are occupied with three rice crops a year and have limited time to grow their vegetables. Each agricultural household spends USD 5–7 daily to purchase vegetables, meat, fish, eggs, fuel for transportation, and household items from the market. As indicated above, the total net profit of rice farming in one hectare of farmlands per rice farming season (three-month period) would range between USD 220 and USD 350. It suggests that agricultural households could generate an average income of less than USD 100/month. With the current rate of average daily expenditure of USD 5–7, agricultural households with less than one hectare of farmland would not produce enough food for household consumption for the entire year. The situation would be worse for the landless households. However, agricultural households with two hectares of farmland could produce enough rice for household consumption.

The average landholding size per household is 1.95 ha. About 12.5% of total households own farmlands of less than one hectare. In BSL, 12.5% of households own less than one hectare of farmland, followed by Beung Ream at 31%. In Tuek Thla, Prey Kandieng, and Ta Kao Communes in BSL, about 32%, 26%, and 23% of households own less than one hectare of farmland. The households in this category will face food shortages even if they intensify rice farming, as a net profit of less than USD 100 is relatively low for them. The situation would be worse for the landless, as about 10.3% of households are landless. In Beung Ream, about 16% of households are landless, followed by 11.6% in BSL and 4.6% in Ta Soung. In the Beung Sneh area, the Prey Kandieng is a commune where the landless account for 22%, followed by Damrei Puon at 21% and Baray at 19%. In Beung Ream, the landless constitute 16% of the total population of Kah Koh commune. Some landless households hire farmlands from individuals or companies to cultivate rice at USD 100 per hectare per season (

Table 6. The landless and the households with farmland less than a hectare.

Site	Name Village	No. of Households	No. of Households Owning Farmland Less Than 1 ha		No. of Households That Do Not Own Any Farmland
			No.	%	No.	%
Beung Phlang	3	1238	0	0	0	0
Beung Sneh	44	10,911	1367	12.5	1266	11.6
Beung Ream	10	3325	1032	31.0	540	16.2
Ta Soung	15	3731	2	0.1	173	4.6
Total	72	19,205	2401	12.5	1979	10.3
Source: Author

).

Fish is a second food item, consumed almost daily by rural households. In Prey Veng, about 88% of households consume their fish catch, followed by 83% in Kampong Thom and 77% in Takeo. On the other hand, about 14.6% of fish caught by households in Cambodia was sold, of which 22% in Takeo Province, 17% in Kampong Thom, and 11% in Prey Veng [53]. Nevertheless, a study found that despite nearly 76% of households not participating in fishing activities, they still consume fish five days per week. Agricultural households typically purchase their fish from local markets. However, some villagers have expressed that local fish catch is not enough for sale in local markets, leading them to rely on fish imported from outside their communities. Moreover, agricultural households in Prey Veng and Takeo Provinces living near the Vietnam–Cambodia border have reported consuming raised fish, most likely imported from Vietnam.

4.3.3. Trading

Rice is primarily cultivated for household consumption during the wet season using local strains like Malis and Neangming. However, farming households have moved to cultivate DSRF solely for sale. Thus, high-yield rice varieties, such as IR504/OM5451, from Vietnam are favorable for local farmers in Cambodia due to their high market demands, value, yield, and water availability. Despite this, the high market demand for Vietnamese rice varieties means that Cambodian farmers are more inclined to sell them than to consume them. Also, this has gradually pushed WSRF practices towards more high-yield and high-value rice varieties from Vietnam.

The DSRF is generally viewed by farmers as a significant source of income from rice trading. Vietnamese rice varieties are specifically grown for trading purposes. The price of these rice varieties has significantly increased in the last three years, ranging from KHR 800 in 2020 to KHR 1200–1400 in 2023, compared to KHR 300 to 600 per kg in 2005. Nationally, around 39% of agricultural households are involved in rice farming activities for trade, with the highest percentages in Prey Veng at 42.3%, followed by Kampong Thom at 39% and Takeo at 21% [53]. Approximately 20.3% of agricultural households indicate that rice farming contributes 60–100% of their total household income. Kampong Thom has the highest percentage of households (26.1%), where agriculture contributes 60–100% of their total income, followed by Takeo (21.3%) and Prey Veng (17%).

It is important to note that almost all households engage in DSRF for sale and WSRF for consumption, according to the studies. The study found that tons of fish are imported by traders into Cambodia from Thailand and Vietnam through various border crossings. In Prey Veng, the unconfirmed report estimates that about 50 tons of fish daily are imported from Vietnam and sold in local markets. In Kampong Thom Province, about 70 tons/day of fish are imported to sell in local markets. The price of imported fish from Vietnam is about KHR 4000/kg, cheaper than the Cambodian-raised fish, but the taste is not that good compared with Cambodia’s fish. The Kingdom imported 130,000 tons of seafood in 2019.

4.4. Food System Outcomes

Rice farming has undergone a significant transformation with the adoption of two to three crops per year, which coincides with an increase in migration rates. In the study areas, about 25% of the population above 18 years old migrates to seek employment in cities and overseas. The female migration constitutes 19% of the total female population. Of the total number of migrants, approximately 2% of young individuals migrate overseas. Notably, BSL has the highest migration rate at 32%, followed by Beung Ream at 20% and Ta Soung at 13%. Furthermore, BSL has a higher percentage of female migration, at 26%, compared to Ta Soung at 11% and Beung Ream at 10%. These have contributed to shortages of labor in agriculture (

Table 7. The migration in the studied areas.

Site	No. of Villages	No. of HHs	Population (>18 yrs)	No. of Migrants	%	Female Population (>18 yrs)	No. of Female Migrants	%	No. of Oversea Migrants	%
1. Beung Phlang	5	1981	4879	1368	28	2544	441	17	441	9.0
2. Beung Sneh	73	17,070	39,503	12,496	32	21,832	5737	26	1046	2.6
3. Boeung Ream	10	3325	7891	1616	20	7597	754	10	Not available	Not available
Ta Soung	33	7753	23,555	3098	13	12,369	1306	11	181	0.8
Total	121	30,129	75,828	18,578	25	44,342	8238	19	1668	2.2
Source: authors.

).

Indeed, agricultural households hire laborers and practice agricultural mechanization to increase the number of rice farming seasons. These have increased the cost of rice production. The rising cost of rice farming has had a substantial impact on the profits of many farmers. Many farming households have turned to formal and informal money lenders to secure the necessary funds. Over 70% of agricultural households in Beung Phlang and Ta Soung are currently in debt, while in Beung Ream and BSL, the numbers are 60% and 56%, respectively (Table 3). Consequently, farmers often seek the assistance of Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs) to fund the rice farming industries and purchase essential equipment and supplies.

The study found that young people are increasingly migrating to urban areas, which may make it difficult for them to return to their rice fields. As a result, farmers may opt to sell their land to private owners or companies, and some may choose to lease their land back from these companies to continue farming. In Beung Phlang, for example, a substantial number of agricultural households sold their farmland to the owners of brick factories, who then turned the purchased agricultural lands into brick industries. Many villagers ended up working in brick industries as laborers. In Samnak village, located in Kakoh Commune in Kampong Thom Province, 50% of 312 households sold their Srekrom (lower rice fields) to a company for USD two thousand per hectare. Approximately 70 hectares of agricultural land in the village are Srekrom. Around 20 households have no farmland and lease land from a company to engage in rice farming for USD 100 per hectare per farming season. In the neighboring village of Santuk Krao, approximately 250 hectares of Srekrom were sold to private companies, and similar circumstances have happened in other villages within Kakoh Commune.

The rise in rice farming and extended farming seasons has increased water demand. It has led to competition for water resources to irrigate the first and second DRSFs, resulting in depleted water sources in Beung Ream, BSL, and Beung Phlang. Consequently, water conflicts have arisen among farmers in these areas. Also, there have been water conflicts between farmers and fishermen. For instance, in BSL and Ta Soung, FUWCs extract water resources to irrigate rice, while CFis protect water to keep the fishery productive for fishing households. In Beung Ream and Beung Phlang, CFRs protect the natural ponds and keep fisheries, while FUWCs compete for water for rice farming. These caused water depletion and conflicts.

The rice farming industry has had a notable impact on local fisheries, with canals, ponds, and streams drained to the point of depletion. Additionally, the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has also harmed aquatic life. Regrettably, the irrigation management system does not prioritize fisheries, resulting in a decline in rice field fisheries, as reported by farmers. In BSL, 44 villages with approximately 2000 households rely on fishing, with an average catch of 1.5 kg daily. Beung Phlang sees 248 households fishing during the wet season, with an average catch of 2 kg per household daily. The Prek Ambel River (PAR) in Ta Soung in Prey Kabbas District was a former fishing lot covering 6673 ha, leased to an owner for KHR 46 million, or USD 11,500 annually. The former fishing lot areas have now transformed into four Community Fisheries (CFis) with the participation of 1200 households from four communes in Prey Kabbas District in Takeo Province. Despite this, the fishery has declined, and the average catch remains around 2 kg per household daily. Lastly, in Beung Ream in Kampong Thom Province, about 1000 households benefit from fishing during the three-month high fishing season, with an average catch of 2 kg per household per day.

Figure 3 simplifies the current farming situations in the study areas and the challenges farmers face in rice farming. Water resources are limited for rice farming for the whole year, varying by month, increasing from May onward as more rain comes, and peaking in October or early November but dropping significantly from January to April. Traditionally, farming was one rice crop a year, from May to November, and the cultivation period is six months, with an average yield of 3 tons/ha. At present, rice farming has increased to 2–3 times a year—(1) wet season rice farming (WSRF) from May to October; (2) the first dry season rice farming (DSRF) from November to January; and (3) the second DSRF from February to April. Farmers have competed for water resources to irrigate three rice farming seasons, leading to water shortages, rice spoilage, and water conflicts between farmers and farmers and between farmers and fishermen. Migration has happened almost everywhere in the rice farming communities in Cambodia, leading to labor shortages. In response, farming households practice farming mechanization, leading to a high cost of production. In doing so, farming households take loans from microfinance institutions and money lenders to finance the rice farming business, ending up in deep debt. Farmers have also used agrochemical inputs, including pesticides and fertilizers, to improve rice productivity. They are harmful to aquatic animals and fisheries and also increase the cost of production.

4.5. Actors, Formal and Informal Institutions, and Control over Resources

Food production involves a complex process of integrating water, land, and natural resources into production, and the supplies of labor, technology, and capital by local communities or the food production actors into the food production system. While state agencies support food production, processing, consumption, and trade, the governance of the food system remains sectoral, technical, and centralized.

Water plays a critical role in food production, particularly in agriculture, and its management is overseen by MOWRAM. Currently, water management is primarily focused on irrigation, and four irrigation schemes have been implemented in the study areas, covering a total area of 166,790 hectares. Furthermore, MOWRAM and PDOWRAM have established four FWUCs to support the irrigation schemes, with approximately 15,481 families actively involved in these organizations. These FWUCs obtain water from a variety of sources, including BSL, the Mekong River, the Prek Ambel River (PAR), and the Stung Chinit River.

The management of irrigation schemes and FWUCs is centralized under MOWRAM, with PDOWRAMs responsible for handling technical matters at the provincial level and providing reports to the Provincial Government on planning, management, and the integration of irrigation planning into provincial planning and budgeting. PDOWRAMs collaborate with the District Office of Agriculture, Natural Resources, and Environment (DANREs) to supervise irrigation schemes and FWUCs. DANREs are responsible for water resource management and collaborate with FWUCs to operate the irrigation systems, providing progress updates to PDOWRAMs. FWUC leaders communicate with DANRE Officers to authorize water release for rice field irrigation and progress updates are reported to PDOWRAM. At the end of the farming season, FWUC members pay water fees as stipulated in their by-laws. It is important to note that fisheries are not currently part of FWUCs or the management of irrigation schemes.

In contrast, the management of fisheries in the studied areas is centralized under the FiA, which has established both CFis and CFRsto oversee this important resource. Across the region, eight CFis and two CFRs have been put in place, with the latter linked to rice fields, fisheries, and irrigation systems. CFis, on the other hand, are situated in water bodies to manage and protect inland fishery resources. These bodies work tirelessly to maintain water levels that are deep enough to shelter fish, especially during the dry season, to ensure their conservation. However, as the actions of CFis and CFRs often come into conflict with those of FWUCs, the pressure on these organizations is immense. The need for farmers to pump water by FWUCs from rivers, lakes, and ponds to irrigate their paddy fields directly contradicts the actions of CFi and CFR conservations, leading to a reduction in water volumes and levels that can negatively impact the fisheries. Additionally, CFis and CFRs also face the threat of flooded forest destruction, following the decline in water level.

The FiA has established both CFis and CFRs, which are registered with MAFF. Management of these areas at the provincial level falls under the jurisdiction of FiACs, although FiACs are not directly under the FiA. Instead, they are under the control of the Provincial Department of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishery (PDAFF). Unfortunately, CFis and CFRs have become inactive due to insufficient support. They encounter several challenges, including infringements against the protection of fishery areas, illegal fishing practices within CFis and CFRs, inadequate involvement from local members and non-members in managing and protecting fishery resources, and insufficient support from concerned agencies. There have also been conflicts between CFis and CFRs, and FWUCs over the pumping of waters from waterbodies to irrigate paddy fields; the overlapping physical spaces between CFis and CFRs and FWUCs; the weak fishery governance in irrigation schemes and FWUC areas; and the uses of agro-chemical inputs such as pesticides and fertilizers in rice farming that harm fish and other aquatic animals [54]. Furthermore, the lack of financial capital and technical support from FiA, FiACs, and local government, as well as donors and development partners in managing CFi and CFR areas, hinders the conservation and protection of fish and other aquatic animals and their habitats.

In addition, other natural resource management communities have been organized in the study areas. Tuolporn Taley Boeung Sneh in BSL is home to approximately 50 bird species. The Ministry of Environment (MoE) has issued a sub-decree to designate BSL as a multiple-use area covering 3557 hectares [55]. Moreover, a bird sanctuary in BSL, spanning 86 hectares, was established by the MoE in 2019. The MoE has also created a community-based ecotourism (CBET) program that allows tourists to visit the bird sanctuary and engage with local communities in conservation efforts. Two villages, Torp Sdach and Kampong Sleng [56], have joined in establishing ecotourism. The CBET offers tourist services such as boat tours, food and beverage, and seating platforms. The Ministry of Tourism and the Provincial Department of Tourism of Prey Veng support the CBET and ensure that it operates by the Ministry’s legal and institutional frameworks.

However, there are overlapping roles and responsibilities between MOWRAM/PDWRAM, MOE/PDOW, MAFF/PDAFF, and FiA/FiACs in the management of the same spaces but different specializations and sectors from national and local levels, for instance, the BSL and Ta Soung Communities. These have burdened local communities such as FWUC, CBET, CFis, and CFRs in managing their areas. Different community-based organizations have obeyed specific rules and regulations from central ministries down to the provincial departments and then imposed them on local communities, creating inevitable tensions and conflicts. However, they live in the same villages, drinking water and eating fish and rice from the same lake, ponds, and rice fields. These have undermined the food productivity of the landscapes and the communities.

5. Conclusions

Cambodian rice farmers have enhanced rice farming from one, to two to three rice crops annually. Also, the rice yield has increased from 2–3 tons to 5–6 tons per hectare. Rice production increased by 17% between 2015 and 2019, with an annual average rice production of 10.32 million tons [12], reaching 11.62 million in 2022 [47,57]. Cambodia has generated a rice surplus of more than 6.3 million tons annually for export [49]. A well-known government figure from MAFF said, “Cambodia enjoys favorable food security, even though some countries faced food security issues after India stopped exporting white milled rice…The key factors conducive to food security in Cambodia are that the country is a paddy producer with a surplus of more than six million tons per year” [58].

The concept of food security is multifaceted, encompassing the fundamental right to food and six key dimensions: availability, access, utilization, stability, agency, and sustainability [59]. These dimensions are reflected in the access to essential resources such as water, land, agriculture, and fishery resources [60], which are essential for establishing CFis, CFRs, and FWUCs that secure access to these vital resources for rice farming and fishery production. Thanks to irrigation systems, agricultural households can cultivate rice farming three times per year, increasing rice production for many rural households. However, policies that prioritize rice exportation may not always align with the goal of food security, as private sectors may encroach on state and private lands for rice farming, leading to land conflicts, as reported by the Human Rights Group [61]. Additionally, with an average landholding size of 1.95 hectares per household, as found in this study and consistent with the ADB report in 2021, agricultural households may struggle to produce a large export surplus in the context of increasing climate change, migration, and labor shortages.

RGC announced the increase in total volumes of paddy production, which contribute to achieving the desired rice export policy. Nevertheless, the increased paddy production among farmers does not clearly aim to contribute to Cambodia’s rice export policy. Instead, Cambodian farmers cultivate Vietnamese rice varieties that are introduced by Vietnamese rice traders, and sell them back to Vietnam through Vietnamese traders, which, in the end, serves the Vietnamese rice export business on the global markets. On the contrary, Cambodian farmers suffer from price instability and prices set by the Vietnamese traders.

The rise of rice farming, with its potential for two to three farming seasons per year, has coincided with an increase in labor migration. The migration has led to a labor shortage in the agricultural sector in Cambodia, with approximately 1,301,609 young workers, or roughly 8% of the total population, choosing to migrate to seven different countries across Asia. Thailand alone attracts around 1.2 million workers, not including those who are undocumented [57]. In the studied areas, only 2% of adults above 18 years old migrate overseas, which is a relatively low number but is increasing. Meanwhile, domestic migration found in this study makes up around a quarter of the total population. These trends have resulted in a reduction in the labor force available for rice farming.

However, agricultural households have responded by intensifying their rice farming efforts. Firstly, they have mechanized farming processes by hiring tractors, harvesting, and threshing machines to plow, broadcast, and harvest their rice fields. Some farming households have even hired laborers to work on their farms [62]. Secondly, rice intensification has been achieved through the increased use of agrochemical inputs to boost yields. Thirdly, local rice varieties have been substituted with higher-yielding varieties imported from Vietnam for trade with Vietnamese traders. The majority of agro-chemical inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides utilized in the rice farming industry in southeastern Cambodia are imported from Vietnam. These findings are consistent with other studies. Cambodian farmers could access fertilizers and pesticides borrowed from Vietnamese merchants, with the agreement to sell the harvested paddy to repay the debts. Vietnamese traders charge an interest rate of up to 2% per month [63].

The rising cost of farming has become a burden on households, leading many to seek financial assistance through microfinance. The report of the Cambodian League for the Promotion and Defense of Human Rights (LICADHO) [64] confirmed that, by the end of 2019, over 2.6 million Cambodian borrowers had a total of USD 10 billion in microfinance debt, with an average loan size of USD 3804. This accounts for approximately 16% of the total population. Frank’s study [65] on microfinance in Cambodia (2022) indicates that about 55.5% of the population takes loans from microfinance, and this percentage may have increased since the study. The Cambodia Agriculture Survey (CAS) in 2020 [53] found that around 21.3% of farming households borrow money from microfinances for rice farming. In certain provinces, such as Prey Veng, Kampong Thom, and Takeo, borrowing rates range from 12% to 20% [66]. Notably, in Takeo Province, around 70% of farmers take out small loans between USD 250 and 1500 [67]. Comparing with other studies, this study found a slightly higher percentage of indebtedness of around 60–80% of the total population. The LICADHO and Equitable Cambodia (2020) [66] indicate that “debt levels in Cambodia have already reached unsustainable levels,” with communities reporting that they are eating less food and borrowing from private lenders to repay microloan debts. Selling farmland to repay loans and renting it from landlords at USD 100 per hectare to continue farming is also prevalent among some agricultural households. This over-indebtedness crisis has raised serious and urgent questions about its impact on children, including child labor, dropping out of school, and widespread land sales.

Cambodia’s focus on rice trade and cultivation has led to neglecting local rice varieties and increasing reliance on Vietnam for rice farming and trade. Usually, the wet season rice is cultivated by farming households for household consumption and the dry season rice is cultivated mainly for trade to Vietnam [63]. However, due to high demand, wet season rice farming has also shifted towards trade. Additionally, agricultural households have started consuming more Vietnamese rice varieties, which could have significant long-term implications.

The intensification of rice farming has led to increased irrigation development. MOWRAM has developed the Water Sector Strategic Development Plan (WSSDP) 2019–2033 to rehabilitate the irrigation system across Cambodia. To do so, MOWRAM needs a budget of USD 3.15 billion. The RGC allocated USD 472 million to MOWRAM to implement the WSSP 2019–2023 to rehabilitate the irrigation system to support the agricultural development and improve rice production for export [68]. The increased irrigation system rehabilitation in Cambodia contributed to the increase in annual rice production of up to 40% [1]. Despite that, increased climate change has made the water available unsuitable for rice cultivation. The increased water use for rice farming across three farming seasons has led to water shortages, which could lead to water tensions among farmers. Also, increased water use for rice farming would affect fishery aquatic resources and biodiversity.

Effective water governance is crucial for the success of rice farming, fishery management, and irrigation development. Unfortunately, this has not been easy to achieve due to sectoral and centralized systems that prioritize the interests of specific agencies. For example, MOWRAM dictates the roles and responsibilities of Farmer Water User Communities (FWUCs) according to Water Laws and Sub-decrees without considering the perspectives of other agencies like MAFF, FiA, and provincial government. As a result, FWUCs tend to focus on irrigating rice fields by extracting water from water bodies, while Community Fisheries (CFis/CFRs) prioritize protecting water sources for their fisheries. However, climate change has made water availability more unpredictable than ever before. Weak water governance and poor coordination between MOWRAM, MAFF, FiA, and provincial government agencies in water infrastructure development, water use, and conservation create additional vulnerability for water availability for rice farming in the face of altered hydrological regimes in the Mekong River and climate change. These could ultimately compromise food production and consumption at the sub-national level.