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Article

Radar Interferometry for Sustainable Groundwater Use: Detecting Subsidence and Sinkholes in Kabodarahang Plain

by
Mohammad Mohammadhasani
1,
Ahmad Rashidi
2,
Behnaz Sheikh Shariati Kermani
3,
Majid Nemati
2,4 and
Reza Derakhshani
4,5,*
1
Building-Housing and Road Research Center (BHRC), Department of Seismology Engineering and Risk, Tehran 14639-17151, Iran
2
Department of Earthquake Research, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman 7616913439, Iran
3
Department of Geography and Urban Planning, Yazd University, Yazd 8915818411, Iran
4
Department of Geology, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman 7616913439, Iran
5
Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CB Utrecht, The Netherlands
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2024, 16(14), 1976; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16141976
Submission received: 9 June 2024 / Revised: 28 June 2024 / Accepted: 2 July 2024 / Published: 12 July 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water, Geohazards, and Artificial Intelligence, 2nd Edition)
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Abstract

:
This study investigates the consequences of unsustainable groundwater extraction in the Kabodarahang plain, a region significantly impacted by geohazards, such as land subsidence and sinkhole formation due to excessive groundwater use for agricultural and industrial activities. Over 32 years (1990–2022), a dramatic decrease in groundwater levels by approximately ~41 m has been observed, leading to notable geohazards. Employing radar interferometry techniques with Sentinel-1 satellite radar imagery and the Sentinel Application Platform (SNAP) tool, complemented by field data, this research aims to quantify the rate of subsidence and evaluate the associated risks, particularly in urban and residential zones. Findings from 2017 to 2018 indicate a subsidence rate of 14.5 cm, predominantly in urban areas, thereby elevating the risk of this geohazard. The results underscore the critical need for sustainable groundwater management policies and practices. The study demonstrates the effectiveness of radar interferometry in monitoring subsidence in the Kabodarahang plain and suggests that integrating such techniques with field surveys and satellite data can enhance the detection and management of risks related to unsustainable groundwater usage. This research contributes to the understanding of the impacts of groundwater depletion on geohazards and supports the development of strategies for sustainable groundwater use to mitigate such risks.

1. Introduction

One of the significant and growing problems in many countries is the phenomenon of subsidence. In recent years, different regions, mainly arid and low-rainfall regions, have encountered this phenomenon [1,2,3]. Subsidence and its sinkholes are listed as natural hazards [4,5]. In cases where studies are related to the impact of environmental and engineering issues on infrastructure design, this phenomenon should be well identified due to the importance and sensitivity of its presence in areas under construction to achieve a better safety index [6,7,8,9,10,11].
Subsidence is a geological and geomorphological phenomenon that occurs under the influence of natural factors and sometimes due to human intervention and appears in the form of cracks in the earth’s surface, sinkholes, and regional subsidence related to the lithological factors, i.e., limestone, gypsum, etc. [7,12]. Sinkholes are closed pits that form as holes in the surface of calcareous soils and other soluble or alluvial rocks [13,14]. Digging countless wells and increasing water consumption in urban, agriculture, and industry has led to a decrease in groundwater resources, followed by subsidence of plains and sinkholes. Global risk of these destructive phenomena peaked between 1950 and 1970, coinciding with industrialization and urbanization. In recent years, Iran has not been exempted from this destructive phenomenon. According to Iran’s prevailing climate (hot and dry), recognizing the subsidence and its consequences and analyzing data related to lowering the groundwater level in the plains should not be difficult. Some plains of Iran (e.g., Rafsanjan, Mashhad, Kerman, Hamadan, Tehran) have seen many traces of subsidence. Moinabad Varamin plain in Tehran (Iran’s capital) province, where ~2.4 km long rift was observed, rifts are being formed in parallel, and the expansion process threatens the power lines. In southwest Tehran, the measurements indicated the formation of subsidence around 1.5 m during 9 years in districts 18 and 19 of the municipality. In Kabodarahang plain in the Hamadan province, the subsidence is particularly a serious threat to the residents of the area. In this research, our objectives are to discover how sinkholes in the Kabodarahang Plain form and to measure the ground surface’s vertical changes in the Kabodarahang Plain, where industrial and agricultural activities are based on groundwater resources. We want to establish whether there is a direct relationship between the groundwater level and the sinkholes.
The radar interference method is often recognized as a new technology for monitoring surface deformations with very high accuracy and spatial resolution [15], and the full potential of its performance has not been determined even by the scientific community exactly [16,17]. The results of this method, which is one of the powerful tools for monitoring subsidence, are numerous and complex [16,18].
Other advantages of this method include wide coverage, cost-effectiveness, and the ability to access information in any weather conditions, equivalent to the accuracy of global location system measurement tracking and accurate alignment [19,20]. Differential synthetic aperture radar interferometry (D-InSAR) is characterized mainly by high spatial resolution and high accuracy over a wide coverage range. Because of its unique advantages, the technology is widely used for monitoring ground surface deformations [21,22,23,24].
Recent advancements in Sentinel-1-based subsidence research have significantly enhanced our understanding of ground subsidence phenomena, facilitating the development of more sophisticated monitoring and analysis techniques. Notable studies such as those by Cianflone et al. [25], Li et al. [26], Luo et al. [27], Rafiei et al. [28], and Sheng et al. [29] have employed innovative methods to investigate ground subsidence in various geographical locations, revealing intricate details about subsidence contributions, rates, and impacts. These studies underscore the effectiveness of Sentinel-1 data and DInSAR techniques in detecting and analyzing subsidence over extensive areas and diverse environments. By integrating findings from these recent studies, our research aims to provide a more nuanced understanding of the subsidence phenomenon in the Kabodarahang plain, comparing our results with these pivotal studies to highlight both consistencies and unique insights specific to our study area. This approach not only aligns our research with the cutting-edge developments in the field but also contributes to a more holistic understanding of subsidence dynamics, facilitating targeted and effective crisis management and mitigation strategies.
This research employs radar interferometry to investigate the subsidence phenomenon in the Kabodarahang Plain, situated in NW of Iran. The need to monitor subsidence in this region has become increasingly important due to recent changes in the ground surface topography. Compared to other expensive and less accurate techniques, radar monitoring offers a cost-effective and reliable approach to detecting subsidence.
The Kabodarahang Plain is a focal point of this study due to its distinctive geographical and socio-economic characteristics, highlighting the imperative need to tackle subsidence and sinkhole occurrences. This area is crucial for its contributions to agriculture and industry and relies heavily on land and groundwater resources. Our choice of the Kabodarahang Plain is informed by its exemplification of the broader issues confronting arid and semi-arid locales across Iran, where groundwater depletion has precipitated notable subsidence problems. The ramifications of unaddressed subsidence and the emergence of sinkholes can be severe, endangering infrastructure, diminishing agricultural output, and constituting a significant hazard to human well-being.
Through this study, we aim to illuminate the dynamics of subsidence in this region and offer insight into the geological and hydrological factors at play. The Kabodarahang Plain (Hamadan, Iran) is an invaluable case study for understanding the challenges and solutions related to subsidence in similar environments (Figure 1).

2. Materials and Methods

Snap 8.0, Sentinel-1 toolbox, and Snap-v 1.4.2 win 64, with Sar mint (S1TBX) software, were applied for monitoring and recording subsidence rate in the Kabodarahang plain using the radar interferometry technique.
The radar interferometry technique chooses image pixels with excellent phase stability over the acquisition period of SAR data and measures ground surface deformations over days, months, and years. Pixels have strong backscattering to the SAR sensor to create reliable deformation velocity maps. This method dominates the deficiencies of the formal differential radar interferometry method and makes it possible to generate a time- series of deformation at the millimeter precision. This method is effective because it uses sub-pixels that are not affected by either spatial or temporal decorrelation [22,37]. The various steps applied in Snap (8.0.0) software to perform the calculations are presented in Figure 2. Our analyses were based on special instructions in each stage.
The spatial resolution of Sentinel-1 data, at approximately 5 × 20 m, significantly shapes our analysis capabilities and limitations. This resolution determines the most minor ground deformation features we can detect, affecting our study’s sensitivity to minor subsidence and small-scale sinkholes. Despite Sentinel-1’s advantages for continuous monitoring, including its all-weather capabilities, limitations such as potential decorrelation in vegetated areas and atmospheric noise can impact the data’s accuracy.
To address these challenges, we applied advanced InSAR processing techniques to refine the accuracy of our subsidence measurements. We also attempted to validate our InSAR results with available ground truth data, measuring our analysis’s precision. Table 1 indicates the characteristics of the radar images used in this research.
In Kabodarahang Plain, sometimes there are seasonal floods. We selected the five total periods to monitor the area more accurately (Table 2). Therefore, we can compare them with each other. The first three periods are between 83 and 94 days. The last two periods are 59 and 35 days. The total period is 355 days.
Finally, we compared the results of the radar interferometry technique with satellite and field evidence of sinkhole locations. We compared the results with the groundwater level of the Kabodarahang plain for 32 years (1990–2022).

3. Geological and Geographical Setting

Numerous geological, tectonic, and geographical studies have been carried out on the mountains and plains of Iran [38,39,40,41,42,43]. The Kabodarahang plain of Iran is an intermountain depression, and the maximum elevation of this area is ~2470 m above sea level. The area has a semi-arid climate with a mean annual precipitation of ~300 mm. Late autumn to early spring is the rainy period, each with 40 mm. The driest period is usually late spring to late summer, with monthly average precipitation below 5 mm. The early Quaternary history of the plain included extensional tectonics, resulting in the down-throw of Cenozoic carbonate rocks in the Hamedan central area and subsequent filling of the depression with alluvial deposits. The recent sedimentary cover, which is loose and poorly cemented, is overlain by the present alluvial deposits [44].
The Kabodarahang plain is located in the northern domain of the metamorphic Sanandaj- Sirjan zone. Metamorphosed Cretaceous limestone, Triassic–Jurassic slate layers, and non-metamorphosed rock units from the tertiary to Quaternary were outcropped in the Kabodarahang plain and the surrounding area [45]. The oldest rock units located in the northern domain of the Kabodarahang are Jurassic sedimentary rock units, while the slates that are metamorphosed slightly [45] are situated in the western domain of the Kabodarahang plain.
Cretaceous marly limestone and shale rock units are situated northeast of the plain. Therefore, the orbitolina limestone in the base outcropping sequence is located in the south and southwest of the area. Tertiary, mainly Oligo–Miocene rock units are combined of tuff, green volcanic, marl, marly limestone, and limestone (Qom formation), widespread in the plain and its area. The Qom formation is karstified and features a porosity of approximately 20–25%, which contributes to its susceptibility to forming karst phenomena such as sinkholes [46]. Quaternary sediments are usually combined with young alluvial deposits, which lie as overburden on old sediments. The sediments resulted from the reworking of older alluvial and erosion of the bedrock. In different parts of the plain, their thickness mainly varies from 50 to 150 m. The study area tectonically is combined with low and wide-amplitude synclines and anticlines covered by alluvium.
The limestone of the Qom formation exists under the alluvial sediments and acts as bedrock. Microscopic studies of the marly limestone and limestone of Qom formation indicated that the carbonate rocks have a microsparitic crystallization. Some recrystallization, along with detrital quartz cementation and traces of fossils of the crashed nummulite as minor components, are seen in the limestones [46].
Pores and voids devise approximately ~20–25% of the rock volume, increasing karst development. Therefore, in some cases, the size of voids reaches ~2 mm. According to the refs. [47,48], investigations of thin sections indicated that the rock units could be classified as biomicrite and bioclastic packstone. The fragments of bioclastic are commonly composed of some carbonate algae, corals, and benthic foraminifera. Calcimetry tests on the limestone in the area using titration indicated that 94.8% of rock units are combined with calcium carbonate; this accounts for the high karstification potential of the limestone [49].
The Kabodarahang plain in the Hamadan is facing a deficiency in groundwater resources because of the highly increasing demand for agriculture and drinking use associated with the growth of the rapid population and development of agriculture. The sinkhole occurrence for the first time in the Kabodarahang was reported in 1989 [49].
The main economic activity in the Kabodarahang is agriculture. Real irrigation is lower than the total theoretical demand as there is a considerable water deficit in relation to the amount of land to be irrigated.

4. Results

The study has shown that the radar interferometry technique is an effective method for identifying sinkhole locations in the study area. The InSAR monitoring data included 6-day accurate visual inspections, a 12-day temporal baseline between consecutive Sentinel-1 images, and cumulated offsets maps. The following subsections present the evaluation of the Sentinel-1 images for the study area in five time periods and the total period.

4.1. Displacement Rate for the First-Period Evaluation of the Sentinel-1 Images

The first period’s evaluation covered 83 days from “15 September 2017” to “8 December 2017”. The amount of negative displacement, ranging from yellow to red, indicates subsidence in the study area (Figure 3). Although the amount of subsidence observed during this period was considered negligible, it remained significant over the 85-day period. The southwest of the study area (blue colors) included an uplift (Figure 3) due to active faults (see Figure 1b).

4.2. Displacement Rate in the Second Period

The second evaluation covered a period of 84 days from “8 December 2017” to “2 March 2018” and focused on the calculation of vertical displacement. The results showed that the rate of subsidence in the study area remained close to 1 cm, almost the same as the previous period, and occurred in parts of the Qahavand area, as well as Kabodarahang, Kordabad, and Famenin (Figure 4). The first- and second-period results, which mainly cover the autumn and winter seasons in Iran, demonstrate a steady, gradual subsidence in the study area.

4.3. Displacement Rate in the Third Period

The amount of vertical displacement was evaluated in 94 days (third period) from “2018/03/02” to “2018/06/06”. The results show that the amount of subsidence in the area, the same as in the previous series, was ~1 cm. This subsidence occurred mostly in the parts of the Famenin, Kordabad, and Qahavand areas (Figure 5).

4.4. Displacement Rate in the Fourth Period

The amount of vertical displacement in the area was evaluated in 59 days from “2018/06/06” to “2018/08/05” (fourth period). The results of this series show that the amount of subsidence has increased significantly compared to the previous period.
As shown in Figure 6, the subsidence amount of ~1 cm can be seen in the western part of the study area (between Kabodarahang and Hamadan) and the small areas around Kordabad and Famenin.

4.5. Displacement Rate in the Fifth Period

Calculation of the vertical displacement was evaluated over 35 days from “2018/08/05” to “2018/09/10”. The results of the fifth image processing period show that the subsidence amount was more than 0.6 cm, which occurred in the southern half of the study area, particularly in the Qahavand area (Figure 7).

4.6. Displacement in the Whole Period

After reviewing the quarterly periods of the Sentinel-1 image processing related to the study area, using the images of the first and last period from “2017/09/15” to “2018/09/10” (355 days), the results of this research were significant (Figure 8). Calculations show that the maximum amount of subsidence in the study area was ~14.5 cm in a period of ~1 year. The results show that the areas with sharp subsidence are consistent with the places of dense agricultural fields where some sinkholes have been formed (e.g., south of Kordabad; see Figure 8). Figure 9 shows satellite images and three field examples of sinkholes in the south of the Kordabad village within the Kabodarahang plain.

5. Discussion

The subsidence event is usually possible in two different environments and mechanisms: 1—Soluble rocks (limestone, dolomite, gypsum, and salt) that are buried by unconsolidated deposits. The old sinkholes are filled with unconsolidated deposits that the upward hydrostatic pressure of underground water is effective in maintaining. 2—Unconsolidated young deposits and semi-consolidated debris sediments with high porosity that are located under the alluvial, lake, or shallow marine deposits. These deposits include sand and gravel aquifers with high permeability and low compressibility along with clay interlayers with low vertical permeability and high compressibility [50].
Among the features associated with subsidence events are sinkholes. The effects of sinkholes vary depending on where and how they form. Natural sinkholes are formed on land or oceans. When sinkholes are formed on land, they change the topography of the area and cause the movement of underground water to deviate. In areas with a large population, sinkholes cause great damage to human life and property. If a sinkhole occurs in an area, the surrounding areas must be reconstructed. Among the important effects of sinkholes, the following can be mentioned: the occurrence of a sinkhole in a residential area causes loss of human life and death; sinkholes cause cracks and collapse of buildings and financial losses; the occurrence of sinkholes on the side of the roads causes damage to the transportation system; this phenomenon causes pollution and toxic substances to enter the groundwater level. However, the occurrence of natural sinkholes is uncontrollable, but with measures such as maintaining the underground system and piping, this phenomenon can be prevented so that sudden sinkholes do not appear in the middle of the city [51].
Remote sensing is one of the data collection methods in which direct physical contact with the objects to be measured is kept to a minimum. In contrast to terrestrial methods in which the human agent is responsible for interpretation and perception, it is usually performed in direct contact or at a short distance from objects. In remote sensing, data collection is the responsibility of the surveyor. Remote sensing can be considered the science of processing and interpreting images that result from recording the interaction of electromagnetic energy and objects. Remote sensing is the technology of obtaining information about an object in the area with the phenomenon. This method is performed through the processing of data obtained by a device and without direct contact with the studied phenomenon.
Radar interferometry techniques have especially shown the ability to calculate small-scale movements of the ground surface. Many successes in detecting sinkhole-related surface deformation are reported for regions undergoing solution-type deformation leading to wide shallow subsidence features. Their large-scale and relatively small-scale deformation events lend themselves to successful monitoring by conventional repeat-pass interferometry. The increase in the growth rate of sinkholes in the study area is a serious danger for its inhabitants. The results of radar image processing are presented in Table 3.
The main reason for the appearance of subsidence and sinkholes is the uncontrolled extraction of underground resources. As shown in Figure 10, in the Kabodarahang Plain, a sharp decrease in the underground water level is due to the uncontrolled extraction of resources for industrial and agricultural activities. A similar case [52] determined that an increase in the growth rate of sinkholes in West Central Florida is due to the use of underground water and land resources.
To enhance our analysis and understanding of the complex dynamics leading to subsidence and sinkhole formation in the Kabodarahang Plain, we considered various potential contributing factors beyond groundwater extraction. Geological attributes of the area, notably the presence of soluble rocks such as limestone and gypsum, inherently predispose the region to sinkhole formation through natural processes of dissolution and erosion. These geological conditions, coupled with the region’s semi-arid climate, create a susceptible environment for subsidence and sinkholes, even in the absence of human intervention.
Additionally, human activities beyond groundwater extraction, such as urban development, intensive agriculture, and the associated increase in water demand, undoubtedly exacerbate the susceptibility of the land to subsidence. The construction of heavy structures, alteration of natural water drainage patterns, and the removal of vegetation cover can further destabilize the ground. These activities not only increase the rate of groundwater extraction but also directly impact the land’s ability to support such extractions without collapsing.
Interactions between these factors are complex and multifaceted. The significant decrease in groundwater levels, as documented over the past 32 years, likely serves as a catalyst that amplifies the effects of geological predispositions and other human activities. This interplay accelerates the formation of sinkholes and the rate of subsidence observed. Our study acknowledges the necessity of considering these interactions to fully understand the phenomena at play. Future research should aim to dissect these interactions further, employing multidisciplinary approaches to quantify the relative contributions of each factor to the overall subsidence and sinkhole formation process in the Kabodarahang Plain.
Subsidence and sinkholes in the Kabodarahang Plain significantly impact the local population, infrastructure, and environment. For the local community, these geological phenomena can lead to the loss of homes, create hazardous living conditions, and disrupt daily life. Infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and buildings face the risk of damage or collapse, leading to economic losses and potentially endangering lives. The environmental impacts are also severe, including the loss of fertile land and the contamination of water sources, which can further compromise the region’s agricultural productivity and biodiversity. Implementing pre-crisis management strategies has profound potential benefits. By proactively monitoring groundwater levels and land subsidence, identifying vulnerable areas, and regulating water extraction, we can mitigate the risks associated with subsidence and sinkholes. These measures protect the physical and economic well-being of the inhabitants of the Kabodarahang Plain and preserve the region’s natural resources, ensuring a sustainable environment for future generations.
In the Kabodarahang plain, the primary cause of land subsidence is the decline in groundwater levels, which has decreased by approximately 40.5 m over a period of 32 years (from 1900 to 2022) (see Figure 10). This increased subsidence rate has led to the formation of sinkholes on the ground surface. One of the key factors in the creation of sinkholes in the area is the cohesive nature of the overlying alluvium, as well as the thickness of the alluvium and its fine grain size. These factors create conditions for the formation of underground chambers that propagate upwards and eventually lead to the collapse and formation of sinkholes.
This study on the Kabodarahang Plain’s subsidence and sinkhole phenomena, employing radar interferometry, faces limitations, including the spatial and temporal resolution of Sentinel-1 images, which may only partially capture rapid or small-scale ground movements. The need for ground truth data complicates the precise validation of remote sensing observations, while atmospheric conditions and vegetation cover can introduce data noise, potentially affecting interpretations. Distinguishing between natural and anthropogenic causes of subsidence from remote sensing data alone is only possible with in-depth ground-based investigations. Moreover, the study’s reliance on specific remote sensing technologies brings inherent technological constraints, such as sensitivity to surface characteristics, which could influence the accuracy of our findings. Future research will benefit from integrating more comprehensive ground studies and employing advanced remote sensing techniques to address these limitations.
Recently, subsidence has led to significant environmental hazards in some plains of Iran. Subsidence has caused infrastructure damages and, finally, cases of increased hazards to the economy. Subsidence value was investigated in the western plain of Kerman City in Iran by the Sentinel-1 satellite data from 2014 to 2020 using the Sentinel’s Application Platform (SNAP), a tool designed for processing satellite data to monitor and analyze ground deformation [17]. In Figure 11, the regression model had been obtained y = 56.363ln(x) + 22.719; R = 0.9771. The land subsidence rate in that plain was variable between 3.3 cm and 13.2 cm from 2014 to 2020, which confirms a serious increase in the subsidence (Figure 11). Increasing the use of groundwater resources and compaction related to the ground drainage increased utilization of groundwater resources, and the imposition of heavy loads (weight of structures, etc.) could be effective factors on the land subsidence rate in that plain (Figure 11) [17].

6. Conclusions

This study emphasizes the necessity of integrating technological innovations like radar interferometry into broader strategies for sustainable groundwater management. By adopting such advanced monitoring and predictive tools, we can better anticipate and prevent the adverse effects of groundwater depletion. This approach not only addresses the immediate concerns related to land subsidence and sinkholes but also contributes to the overarching goal of sustainable development. Effective implementation of these strategies can help preserve groundwater resources and maintain the ecological balance in regions like the Kabodarahang Plain of Iran.
In the Kabodarahang plain, analysis of Sentinel-1 satellite radar imagery from 2017 to 2018 revealed significant subsidence, approximately 14.5 cm, predominantly in urban and residential areas.
The subsidence in the Kabodarahang plain is closely linked to a dramatic 40.5 m decrease in underground water levels over the past 32 years, underscoring the need for sustainable groundwater management practices.
The use of radar interferometry has proven instrumental in identifying areas at high risk of sinkholes and estimating subsidence rates, offering valuable insights for pre-crisis planning and risk management. The creation of high-risk subsidence maps utilizing this technique can guide targeted interventions and policy decisions to mitigate the impacts of such geohazards.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.M. and A.R.; methodology, B.S.S.K.; software, A.R.; validation, M.M., R.D. and M.N.; formal analysis, M.M., B.S.S.K. and A.R.; investigation, A.R. and R.D.; data curation, M.M. and B.S.S.K.; writing—original draft preparation, A.R.; writing—review and editing, M.N. and R.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

This work is the outcome of a joint research study with the Road, Housing and Urban Development Research Center (BHRC), Tehran, Iran; Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman, Iran.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Geological subdivisions and faults context of the Kabodarahang Plain, Western North-Western Iran: (a) The location of Hamadan Province (includes yellow and pink colors) highlighted on Iran’s active fault map, integrating data from multiple sources [30,31,32,33,34]. (b) Detailed view of the Kabodarahang plain within Hamadan Province, illustrating its faults and geological subdivisions. The black box (Fig. 3) shows the position of Figure 3. Key: Ka = Kabodarahang City; CIZ = Central Iran Zone (blue color); MR and IGZ = Zone of Metamorphic Rocks and Intruded Granitoids (dark gray); ZSZ = Zagros Structural Zone (red color). For detailed geological rock units of Kabodarahang plain, refer to [35,36].
Figure 1. Geological subdivisions and faults context of the Kabodarahang Plain, Western North-Western Iran: (a) The location of Hamadan Province (includes yellow and pink colors) highlighted on Iran’s active fault map, integrating data from multiple sources [30,31,32,33,34]. (b) Detailed view of the Kabodarahang plain within Hamadan Province, illustrating its faults and geological subdivisions. The black box (Fig. 3) shows the position of Figure 3. Key: Ka = Kabodarahang City; CIZ = Central Iran Zone (blue color); MR and IGZ = Zone of Metamorphic Rocks and Intruded Granitoids (dark gray); ZSZ = Zagros Structural Zone (red color). For detailed geological rock units of Kabodarahang plain, refer to [35,36].
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Water 16 01976 g002
Figure 2. Flowchart illustrating the processing steps in SNAP (8.0.0) software for displacement calculations in the Kabodarahang Plain. This figure provides a detailed overview of the methodological process used to perform displacement calculations in the study area.
Figure 2. Flowchart illustrating the processing steps in SNAP (8.0.0) software for displacement calculations in the Kabodarahang Plain. This figure provides a detailed overview of the methodological process used to perform displacement calculations in the study area.
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Water 16 01976 g003
Figure 3. Vertical displacement map from the first evaluation period of Sentinel-1 imagery (15 September 2017 to 8 December 2017). This figure presents the observed changes in vertical land displacement during this initial evaluation period. Stars indicate the location of sinkholes and dots indicate residential areas.
Figure 3. Vertical displacement map from the first evaluation period of Sentinel-1 imagery (15 September 2017 to 8 December 2017). This figure presents the observed changes in vertical land displacement during this initial evaluation period. Stars indicate the location of sinkholes and dots indicate residential areas.
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Figure 4. Vertical displacement map from the second evaluation period of Sentinel-1 imagery (8 December 2017 to 2 March 2018). This figure illustrates the observed changes in vertical land displacement during this specific period. Stars indicate the location of sinkholes and dots indicate residential areas.
Figure 4. Vertical displacement map from the second evaluation period of Sentinel-1 imagery (8 December 2017 to 2 March 2018). This figure illustrates the observed changes in vertical land displacement during this specific period. Stars indicate the location of sinkholes and dots indicate residential areas.
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Figure 5. Vertical displacement map from the third evaluation period of Sentinel-1 imagery (2 March 2018 to 6 June 2018). This figure displays the changes in vertical land displacement observed during this specific evaluation period. Stars indicate the location of sinkholes and dots indicate residential areas.
Figure 5. Vertical displacement map from the third evaluation period of Sentinel-1 imagery (2 March 2018 to 6 June 2018). This figure displays the changes in vertical land displacement observed during this specific evaluation period. Stars indicate the location of sinkholes and dots indicate residential areas.
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Figure 6. Vertical displacement map from the fourth evaluation period of Sentinel-1 imagery (6 June 2018–5 August 2018). This figure illustrates the changes in vertical land displacement observed during this timeframe. Stars indicate the location of sinkholes and dots indicate residential areas.
Figure 6. Vertical displacement map from the fourth evaluation period of Sentinel-1 imagery (6 June 2018–5 August 2018). This figure illustrates the changes in vertical land displacement observed during this timeframe. Stars indicate the location of sinkholes and dots indicate residential areas.
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Figure 7. Vertical displacement map from the fifth evaluation period of Sentinel-1 imagery (5 August 2018–10 September 2018). This figure presents the changes in vertical land displacement observed during this specific period. Stars indicate the location of sinkholes and dots indicate residential areas.
Figure 7. Vertical displacement map from the fifth evaluation period of Sentinel-1 imagery (5 August 2018–10 September 2018). This figure presents the changes in vertical land displacement observed during this specific period. Stars indicate the location of sinkholes and dots indicate residential areas.
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Water 16 01976 g008
Figure 8. Map of vertical displacement based on approximately one-year analysis of Sentinel-1 satellite imagery (15 September 2017–10 September 2018). This figure depicts the changes in vertical land displacement during this period. Stars indicate the location of sinkholes and dots indicate residential areas. The black box (Fig. 9a) show the position of Figure 9a.
Figure 8. Map of vertical displacement based on approximately one-year analysis of Sentinel-1 satellite imagery (15 September 2017–10 September 2018). This figure depicts the changes in vertical land displacement during this period. Stars indicate the location of sinkholes and dots indicate residential areas. The black box (Fig. 9a) show the position of Figure 9a.
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Figure 9. Sinkholes near Kordabad Village, southern region: (a) Satellite imagery pinpointing the locations of sinkholes. Circles are the locations of sinkholes. (b–d) Field photographs of the sinkholes, with reference to their specific locations as indicated in part (a).
Figure 9. Sinkholes near Kordabad Village, southern region: (a) Satellite imagery pinpointing the locations of sinkholes. Circles are the locations of sinkholes. (b–d) Field photographs of the sinkholes, with reference to their specific locations as indicated in part (a).
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Figure 10. Decline in groundwater level in the Kabodarahang Plain, 1990–2022. This figure shows a significant reduction of approximately 40.5 m in the underground water level over a 32-year period in the Kabodarahang Plain.
Figure 10. Decline in groundwater level in the Kabodarahang Plain, 1990–2022. This figure shows a significant reduction of approximately 40.5 m in the underground water level over a 32-year period in the Kabodarahang Plain.
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Figure 11. Correlation between water level and land subsidence in the western plain of Kerman City, Iran (2002–2020). This figure illustrates the relationship between groundwater levels and the rate of land subsidence over an 18-year period based on data from [17].
Figure 11. Correlation between water level and land subsidence in the western plain of Kerman City, Iran (2002–2020). This figure illustrates the relationship between groundwater levels and the rate of land subsidence over an 18-year period based on data from [17].
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Table 1. Satellite images characteristics used in this study.
Table 1. Satellite images characteristics used in this study.
ImagesSatelliteShooting DateFormatModePolarizationTrack
2017Sentinel-1A2017/09/15SLCIWVV57
2017Sentinel-1A2017/12/08SLCIWVV57
2018Sentinel-1A2018/03/02SLCIWVV57
2018Sentinel-1A2018/06/06SLCIWVV57
2018Sentinel-1A2018/08/05SLCIWVV57
2018Sentinel-1A2018/09/10SLCIWVV57
Table 2. Five time periods to measure the ground surface deformations in the Kaboudarahang.
Table 2. Five time periods to measure the ground surface deformations in the Kaboudarahang.
IDPeriods Dates
(Years/Month/Day)		Time Periods
(Day)
12017/09/15–2017/12/0883
22017/12/08–2018/03/0284
32018/03/02–2018/06/0694
42018/06/06–2018/08/0559
52018/08/05–2018/09/1035
Total2017/09/15–2018/09/10355
Table 3. The results of subsidence rates in the study area from 2017 to 2018.
Table 3. The results of subsidence rates in the study area from 2017 to 2018.
Total Times5th Period4th Period3rd Period2nd Period1st Period
2017/09/15
to
2018/09/10		2018/08/05
to
2018/09/10		2018/06/06
to
2018/08/05		2018/03/02
to
2018/06/06		2017/12/08
to
2018/03/02		2017/09/15
to
2017/12/08
~14.5 cm~0.6 cm~10 cm~1 cm~1 cm0 to 1 cm
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Mohammadhasani, M.; Rashidi, A.; Sheikh Shariati Kermani, B.; Nemati, M.; Derakhshani, R. Radar Interferometry for Sustainable Groundwater Use: Detecting Subsidence and Sinkholes in Kabodarahang Plain. Water 2024, 16, 1976. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16141976

AMA Style

Mohammadhasani M, Rashidi A, Sheikh Shariati Kermani B, Nemati M, Derakhshani R. Radar Interferometry for Sustainable Groundwater Use: Detecting Subsidence and Sinkholes in Kabodarahang Plain. Water. 2024; 16(14):1976. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16141976

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mohammadhasani, Mohammad, Ahmad Rashidi, Behnaz Sheikh Shariati Kermani, Majid Nemati, and Reza Derakhshani. 2024. "Radar Interferometry for Sustainable Groundwater Use: Detecting Subsidence and Sinkholes in Kabodarahang Plain" Water 16, no. 14: 1976. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16141976

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