Comprehending Spatial Distribution and Controlling Mechanisms of Groundwater in Topical Coastal Aquifers of Southern China Based on Hydrochemical Evaluations
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Sampling and Testing
3. Results
3.1. Hydrochemical Characteristics
3.2. Water Chemical Types
4. Discussion
4.1. Spatial Patterns of the Main Chemical Components
4.2. Mechanism and Influencing Factors of Groundwater Hydrochemical Formation
4.2.1. Rock Weathering
4.2.2. Ion Ratios
4.2.3. Cation Exchange
4.2.4. Impact of Human Activities
5. Conclusions
- (1)
- The pH of groundwater in the study area ranges from 3.24 to 8.23, with most of the groundwater being slightly acidic. The pH of surface water ranges from 5.35 to 9.86, with most of it being weakly alkaline. The acidity in the groundwater is linked to acidic atmospheric precipitation, an acidic unsaturated zone, the oxidation of sulphide minerals and tidal action.
- (2)
- The cations in groundwater are dominated by Na+ and Ca2+, with mean concentrations of 457.7 mg/L and 67.93 mg/L, respectively. The anions are dominated by Cl− and HCO3−, with mean concentrations of 909.9 mg/L and 154.84 mg/L, respectively. The groundwater chemical types are predominantly mixed, followed by Ca-Mg-HCO3 type. Surface water samples are predominantly of the Na-Cl-SO4 type.
- (3)
- The spatial patterns of major anions and cations in groundwater are closely related to landform and aquifer type. The main chemical components of confine pore groundwater and karst groundwater in coastal plain areas are significantly higher compared to those in hilly plateau areas.
- (4)
- The samples from rivers, canals, lakes, ponds, confined pore groundwater and karst groundwater are strongly influenced by the dissolution of rock salts, evaporation and concentration, and reverse cation exchange. Unconfined pore groundwater, clastic fissure groundwater, granite fissure groundwater and reservoir water are controlled by the dissolution of carbonate, sulphate and silicate, along with positive cation exchange.
- (5)
- The nitrate concentration in groundwater ranges from 0.02 to 162 mg/L with a mean of 17.46 mg/L. Nitrate in groundwater primarily originates from atmospheric precipitation and human activities. Nitrate in clastic pore fissure groundwater, granite fissure groundwater and pore unconfined groundwater primarily originates from atmospheric precipitation, agricultural activities on slope farmland and forest land. Nitrate in pore confined groundwater and karst water primarily originates from domestic sewage and mariculture wastewater.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Groundwater Type | pH | EC | K+ | Na+ | Ca2+ | Mg2+ | Cl− | SO42− | HCO3− | TDS | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
μs/cm | mg/L | mg/L | mg/L | mg/L | mg/L | mg/L | mg/L | mg/L | |||
Clastic fissure groundwater | max | 6.86 | 726.7 | 14.60 | 61.80 | 66.70 | 13.00 | 92.90 | 83.30 | 219.0 | 190.0 |
min | 4.54 | 31.1 | 0.65 | 3.92 | 0.46 | 0.58 | 2.36 | 1.76 | 6.30 | 3.78 | |
avg | 5.86 | 178.2 | 4.62 | 12.94 | 16.33 | 3.32 | 14.77 | 13.84 | 61.30 | 54.46 | |
std | 0.70 | 203.5 | 3.93 | 14.19 | 21.24 | 3.07 | 23.45 | 19.93 | 67.85 | 63.23 | |
cv | 0.12 | 1.14 | 0.85 | 1.10 | 1.30 | 0.92 | 1.59 | 1.44 | 1.11 | 1.16 | |
Granite fissure groundwater | max | 8.00 | 3135 | 55.60 | 463.0 | 96.20 | 8.14 | 745.0 | 60.30 | 291.0 | 1480 |
min | 4.53 | 29.7 | <0.07 | 3.80 | <0.02 | 0.21 | <0.06 | <0.1 | <0.5 | 32.20 | |
avg | 6.29 | 231.9 | 5.98 | 23.20 | 14.68 | 1.93 | 24.26 | 11.31 | 75.15 | 158.9 | |
std | 0.79 | 409.0 | 7.38 | 58.23 | 19.87 | 1.66 | 93.50 | 13.93 | 74.06 | 194.0 | |
cv | 0.13 | 1.76 | 1.24 | 2.51 | 1.35 | 0.86 | 3.85 | 1.23 | 0.99 | 1.22 | |
Karst groundwater | max | 7.04 | 22,550 | 97.20 | 3670 | 1580 | 495.0 | 7240 | 420.0 | 339.0 | 12,500 |
min | 5.88 | 2632 | 22.80 | 494 | 18.50 | 32.20 | 500.0 | 150.0 | 25.30 | 1400 | |
avg | 6.29 | 14,067 | 57.53 | 1795 | 714.2 | 318.4 | 4500 | 283.7 | 177.43 | 7860 | |
std | 0.65 | 10,282 | 37.44 | 1664 | 794.5 | 250.1 | 3542 | 135.0 | 157.06 | 5769 | |
cv | 0.10 | 0.73 | 0.65 | 0.93 | 1.11 | 0.79 | 0.79 | 0.48 | 0.89 | 0.73 | |
Unconfined pore groundwater | max | 7.79 | 3928 | 66.40 | 658.0 | 119.0 | 198.0 | 1070 | 172.0 | 973.0 | 2140 |
min | 3.24 | 39.8 | 1.38 | 3.98 | 0.45 | 0.29 | 3.16 | 1.89 | 4.76 | 47.30 | |
avg | 6.18 | 486.7 | 13.97 | 33.48 | 35.37 | 7.42 | 52.13 | 30.15 | 125.05 | 289.0 | |
std | 0.71 | 501.0 | 11.63 | 70.95 | 23.99 | 20.48 | 121.26 | 23.58 | 132.66 | 267.2 | |
cv | 0.11 | 1.03 | 0.83 | 2.12 | 0.68 | 2.76 | 2.33 | 0.78 | 1.06 | 0.92 | |
Confined pore groundwater | max | 8.23 | 40,450 | 294.0 | 7920 | 814.0 | 1020 | 13,800 | 1380 | 1580 | 22,500 |
min | 4.64 | 454.5 | 8.16 | 15.30 | 10.70 | 3.91 | 41.20 | 3.92 | <0.5 | 224.0 | |
avg | 6.86 | 18,475 | 117.06 | 2974 | 259.5 | 381.9 | 5918 | 310.8 | 486.6 | 9801 | |
std | 0.90 | 12,983 | 80.81 | 2330 | 194.6 | 320.3 | 4344 | 407.0 | 478.9 | 6799 | |
cv | 0.13 | 0.70 | 0.69 | 0.78 | 0.75 | 0.84 | 0.73 | 1.31 | 0.98 | 0.69 |
Surface Water Type | pH | EC | K+ | Na+ | Ca2+ | Mg2+ | Cl− | SO42− | HCO3− | TDS | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
μs/cm | mg/L | mg/L | mg/L | mg/L | mg/L | mg/L | mg/L | mg/L | |||
River | max | 9.86 | 40,070 | 306.00 | 7700 | 316.0 | 1130 | 13,700 | 2020 | 267.0 | 25,300 |
min | 6.02 | 2.50 | 2.23 | 10.60 | 0.76 | 0.68 | 10.70 | 12.40 | 31.70 | 131.0 | |
avg | 7.12 | 10,234 | 89.46 | 1803 | 104.92 | 233.8 | 3082 | 511.9 | 162.8 | 5925 | |
std | 0.76 | 11,551 | 89.55 | 2135 | 77.77 | 290.8 | 3690 | 543.1 | 48.86 | 6810 | |
cv | 0.11 | 1.13 | 1.00 | 1.18 | 0.74 | 1.24 | 1.20 | 1.06 | 0.30 | 1.15 | |
Channel | max | 9.42 | 34,640 | 273.00 | 6980 | 263.0 | 900 | 10,100 | 1750 | 304.0 | 20,400 |
min | 5.35 | 5.30 | 2.63 | 8.73 | 0.75 | 0.67 | 4.72 | 3.54 | <0.5 | 56.70 | |
avg | 6.67 | 7847 | 76.50 | 1498 | 85.60 | 189.7 | 2457 | 396.2 | 135.7 | 4472 | |
std | 0.67 | 10,004 | 86.39 | 2045 | 77.60 | 261.0 | 3239 | 513.9 | 70.62 | 5859 | |
cv | 0.10 | 1.27 | 1.13 | 1.37 | 0.91 | 1.38 | 1.32 | 1.30 | 0.52 | 1.31 | |
Pond | max | 8.01 | 37,850 | 305.00 | 7650 | 565.0 | 1010 | 11,900 | 1920 | 214.0 | 23,200 |
min | 6.24 | 53.2 | 5.54 | 8.25 | 0.99 | 0.33 | 5.53 | 3.86 | 23.80 | 48.90 | |
avg | 6.95 | 10,967 | 88.93 | 1820 | 123.54 | 228.0 | 3167 | 453.7 | 126.9 | 5961 | |
std | 0.49 | 13,385 | 104.13 | 2489 | 160.84 | 328.6 | 4244 | 605.5 | 68.96 | 7887 | |
cv | 0.07 | 1.22 | 1.17 | 1.37 | 1.30 | 1.44 | 1.34 | 1.33 | 0.54 | 1.32 | |
Reservoir | max | 8.61 | 823.6 | 32.60 | 46.60 | 42.00 | 12.70 | 83.90 | 38.80 | 153.0 | 316.0 |
min | 5.63 | 29.9 | 2.04 | 4.50 | 0.78 | 0.35 | 3.08 | 2.17 | 14.20 | 12.60 | |
avg | 6.92 | 140.3 | 10.64 | 15.91 | 7.39 | 2.23 | 14.53 | 8.20 | 39.83 | 89.38 | |
std | 0.74 | 202.8 | 9.17 | 10.00 | 11.73 | 3.19 | 20.38 | 10.07 | 37.66 | 70.83 | |
cv | 0.11 | 1.45 | 0.86 | 0.63 | 1.59 | 1.43 | 1.40 | 1.23 | 0.95 | 0.79 |
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He, J.; Wu, P.; Li, Y.; Zeng, M.; Chen, C.; Jakada, H.; Zhao, X. Comprehending Spatial Distribution and Controlling Mechanisms of Groundwater in Topical Coastal Aquifers of Southern China Based on Hydrochemical Evaluations. Water 2024, 16, 2502. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172502
He J, Wu P, Li Y, Zeng M, Chen C, Jakada H, Zhao X. Comprehending Spatial Distribution and Controlling Mechanisms of Groundwater in Topical Coastal Aquifers of Southern China Based on Hydrochemical Evaluations. Water. 2024; 16(17):2502. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172502
Chicago/Turabian StyleHe, Jun, Pan Wu, Yiyong Li, Min Zeng, Chen Chen, Hamza Jakada, and Xinwen Zhao. 2024. "Comprehending Spatial Distribution and Controlling Mechanisms of Groundwater in Topical Coastal Aquifers of Southern China Based on Hydrochemical Evaluations" Water 16, no. 17: 2502. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172502