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Article

Hydrogeochemical Signatures and Processes Influencing Mineral Waters at Furnas Volcano (São Miguel, Azores)

by
Letícia Ferreira
1,*,
José Virgílio Cruz
1,2,
Fátima Viveiros
1,2,
Nuno Durães
3,
César Andrade
1,
Carlos Almeida
4,
Nuno Cabral
5,
Rui Coutinho
1,2 and
José Francisco Santos
3
1
IVAR–Instituto de Investigação em Vulcanologia e Avaliação de Riscos, Universidade dos Açores, 9500-321 Ponta Delgada, Portugal
2
FCT–Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade dos Açores, 9500-321 Ponta Delgada, Portugal
3
GeoBioTec–Geobiociências, Geoengenharias e Geotecnologias, Departamento de Geociências, Universidade de Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
4
FCUL–Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
5
CIVISA–Centro de Informação e Vigilância Sismovulcânica dos Açores, Universidade dos Açores, 9500-321 Ponta Delgada, Portugal
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2025, 17(6), 898; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17060898
Submission received: 11 February 2025 / Revised: 13 March 2025 / Accepted: 14 March 2025 / Published: 20 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Hydrogeology)
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Abstract

Furnas volcano, one of the three active central volcanoes of São Miguel (the Azores archipelago), hosts mineral waters with significant special variations, divided into hyperthermal (89.4–95.4 °C), thermal (29.9–70.0 °C), and cold (14.2–21.4 °C) waters. Groundwaters are classified as Na-HCO3, with a neutral to slightly acidic pH, except one SO4-Na acidic sample. The major elements are primarily influenced by rock leaching and volcanic input, patterns also reflected in the trace elements, including the rare earth elements. The major cations, along with lithium, iron, aluminum, rubidium, and strontium, indicate the influence of water–rock interactions. Some samples depict a higher influence in this input, shown by the similar REE behavior between them and the local rock behavior. The volcanic input is distinguished into two environments: an acid sulfate boiling pool, formed by steam heating, and neutral HCO3-Cl waters, where bicarbonate-rich waters mix with a neutral chloride fluid from a deep reservoir. The deeper reservoir also provides boron, arsenic, antimony, and tungsten, also seemingly associated with a positive spike in europium due to rock dissolution at temperatures above 250 °C or a reducing environment. This interpretation is corroborated by the stability of the strontium isotopes between samples.
Keywords: mineral waters; water–rock interaction; rare earth elements; trace elements; Sr isotopes; hydrothermal system mineral waters; water–rock interaction; rare earth elements; trace elements; Sr isotopes; hydrothermal system

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MDPI and ACS Style

Ferreira, L.; Cruz, J.V.; Viveiros, F.; Durães, N.; Andrade, C.; Almeida, C.; Cabral, N.; Coutinho, R.; Santos, J.F. Hydrogeochemical Signatures and Processes Influencing Mineral Waters at Furnas Volcano (São Miguel, Azores). Water 2025, 17, 898. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17060898

AMA Style

Ferreira L, Cruz JV, Viveiros F, Durães N, Andrade C, Almeida C, Cabral N, Coutinho R, Santos JF. Hydrogeochemical Signatures and Processes Influencing Mineral Waters at Furnas Volcano (São Miguel, Azores). Water. 2025; 17(6):898. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17060898

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ferreira, Letícia, José Virgílio Cruz, Fátima Viveiros, Nuno Durães, César Andrade, Carlos Almeida, Nuno Cabral, Rui Coutinho, and José Francisco Santos. 2025. "Hydrogeochemical Signatures and Processes Influencing Mineral Waters at Furnas Volcano (São Miguel, Azores)" Water 17, no. 6: 898. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17060898

APA Style

Ferreira, L., Cruz, J. V., Viveiros, F., Durães, N., Andrade, C., Almeida, C., Cabral, N., Coutinho, R., & Santos, J. F. (2025). Hydrogeochemical Signatures and Processes Influencing Mineral Waters at Furnas Volcano (São Miguel, Azores). Water, 17(6), 898. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17060898

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