The Role of Phytoplankton in Phycoremediation of Polluted Seawater: Risks, Benefits to Human Health, and a Focus on Diatoms in the Arabian Gulf
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. The Arabian Gulf: Environmental Conditions and Oceanographic Features
1.2. Roles Played by Diatoms in the Marine Ecosystem
- (a)
- Diatoms possess several photosynthetic pigments, including chlorophylls and carotenoids. Chlorophylls a and c capture light energy primarily in the blue and red regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The carotenoids, which include fucoxanthin, β-carotene, xanthophylls, diadinoxanthin, diatoxanthin, violaxanthin, and zeaxanthin, complement this process. Fucoxanthin absorbs light in the green region, bridging the gap left by chlorophylls. These pigments play a crucial role in photosynthesis by facilitating oxygen evolution and carbon dioxide uptake, processes essential for maintaining life and ecological balance in aquatic environments. However, pollution in marine and freshwater ecosystems, particularly from oil and gas activities, can significantly disrupt photosynthesis. For example, research on the diatom Nitzschia palea has shown that such pollution negatively impacts photosynthetic rates [26]. Subsequent investigations on some species of Thalassiosira have explored the proteins associated with the structural and molecular electron transport system of photosynthesis. These studies revealed that pollution-induced disruptions deprive the cells of energy and carbon necessary for growth [27]. Notably, the role of diatoms in converting CO2 into O2 has been demonstrated in numerous studies. Additionally, these phytoplankton serve as a primary food source for zooplankton, molluscs, and fish.
- (b)
- Nutrient cycling is another critical role played by diatoms in marine and freshwater environments [25]. It is worth noting that, through photosynthesis, diatoms produce significant amounts of organic material that sustain marine ecosystems and contribute to the Earth’s carbon cycle. Additionally, they play major roles in the biogeochemical cycling of other nutrients, such as nitrogen and silicon [28].
- (c)
- Climate change mitigation is an important role played by diatoms, particularly through their ability to sequester CO2. Diatoms remove CO2 from the atmosphere and transfer carbon to the deep sea when they die and sink. However, anthropogenic activities and warming oceans may reduce diatom diversity, exacerbating CO2 levels in the atmosphere. These negative consequences could potentially be mitigated through industrial carbon sequestration. Furthermore, secondary metabolites produced by diatoms have various valuable applications, including the production of lipids, omega-3 fatty acids, pigments, and antioxidants [1,29]. Recent reports [15] have also suggested that diatoms are a promising feedstock for developing bioactive agents, such as carotenoids, functional foods, bioactive pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and biofuels [5,30].
- (d)
- The biogeochemical cycle refers to the movement and transformation of chemical elements and compounds among living organisms, the atmosphere, and the Earth’s crust. During the last decade, studies have highlighted the critical role of diatoms as major contributors to biogeochemical cycles involving elements such as carbon, nitrogen, and silicon. Their abundance, diversity, and contributions to these cycles likely enhance the export of these elements to the deep ocean. This process may play a significant role in sustaining fossil fuel reserves [28,31].
- (e)
- (f)
- The formation of mutualistic interactions with bacteria and archaea, and their activities, might help both to survive the harsh environments. Many examples of mutualistic interactions between diatoms and bacteria exist, including exchange of metabolites, protection, detoxification, obtaining metals, growth of both diatoms and bacteria, nutrient availability, and cultivation conditions [41,42,43].
2. General Findings on Diatom Research in the Arabian Gulf Region
2.1. Phycoremediation and Its Bioactive Applications
2.2. Pathways for Phycoremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons Using Diatom
3. Challenges and Future Work
4. Concluding Remarks
Supplementary Materials
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Genus | No. of Species | Remediation of Organic and Inorganic Components | Remarks and Other Possible Roles | References ** |
---|---|---|---|---|
Achnanthes | 1 | * | Needs testing; some roles have been reported | [49,50] |
Actinoptychus | 1 | * | Needs testing; shows antibacterial activity | [51,52] |
Amphiprora | 4 | * | Needs testing; biofuels and oil production have been reported | [53,54,55] |
Amphora | 7 | * | Needs testing; produces bioactive compounds such as antioxidants, and against toxicities of some living organisms | [55,56,57] |
Asterolampra | 1 | * | Needs testing; might remediate heavy metals | [55,58,59] |
Asteromphalus | 3 | * | Needs testing; might remediate heavy metals | [5,55,60,61] |
Auliscus | 1 | * | Needs testing; might remediate heavy metals | [2,46,62,63] |
Bacillaria | 1 | * | Needs more investigation; degradation, speciation, and detoxification of chemical wastes and hazardous metals | [2,46,64] |
Bacteriastrum | 6 | * | Needs more investigation; possesses sustainable metabolic efficacy to remediate diverse wastewater | [2,46,65] |
Bellerochea | 1 | * | More studies are needed; produces nutritional agents, bioactive molecules lipids, polysaccharides, proteins, pigments, vitamins, bio-pharmacological activities, and nutraceutical applications; promotes the health and survival of aquatic species like fish, bivalves, and shrimp | [2,46,66,67,68] |
Biddulphia | 6 | * | More studies are needed as many bioactive compounds are produced and nutritional values were reported | [2,46,67,69] |
Campylodiscus | 3 | * | More studies are needed; can reduce the toxicity of heavy metals by enhancing extracellular adsorption; might be used in improving water quality | [2,46,52,70] |
Cerataulina | 1 | * | Needs more investigation; activates defense mechanisms such as the production of antioxidants and metal chelators | [2,46,71] |
Chaetoceros | 34 | * | Variety of applications and silver nanoparticles (Ag NP) that hold immense therapeutic potential against pathogenic microbes; other applications of a least toxicity and biodegradable nature; remediate heavy metals such as Cd, Cu, and Pb | [72,73,74] |
Climacodium | 1 | * | More investigation needed; reduces heavy metal toxicity, wastewater treatment, biomass can be turned into biofuels, biofertilizers, nutritional supplements for animal production; used for pharmaceutical applications | [2,46,52,68,75] |
Climacosphenia | 1 | * | Further investigation is needed, as it might identify various peptides that facilitate the accumulation of heavy metals and contribute to mechanisms that defend against them | [63,76] |
Cocconeis | 1 | * | Survive polluted seawater and removal of heavy metals; pollution bioindicator; production of some important bioactive agents at various aspects, such as energy, pharmaceuticals, and aquaculture feedstocks | [68,77,78,79] |
Corethron | 2 | * | More investigation is needed; could remove heavy metals by adsorption and bioaccumulation; bioindicator for heavy metal pollution | [55,70,71] |
Coscinodiscus | 10 | * | Needs testing; possible roles in maintaining marine ecosystems; might have direct and indirect benefits for humans | [25,52] |
Coscinosira | 1 | * | Needs testing; might survive polluted seawater and remediate and remove heavy metals, pollution bioindicators; production of some important bioactive agents for various aspects, such as energy, pharmaceuticals, and aquaculture feedstocks | [52,68,78,80] |
Cyclotella | 2 | Uptake petroleum hydrocarbons and heavy metals | More research needed; accumulates titanium, detoxication of heavy metals | [81,82] |
Cylindrotheca | 1 | * | Needs more investigation; one species, C. closterium, proved suitable for sediment heavy metal toxicity tests | [52,83,84] |
Cymbella | 1 | * | More research needed; can be used to remediate some pollutants in sewage sludge such as triclosan | [55,85,86] |
Dactyliosolen | 1 | * | Needs confirmation; possible removal of heavy metals by adsorption, and bioaccumulation; bioindicator for heavy metal pollution | [70,76] |
Diatoma | 1 | * | Needs confirmation; possible role in heavy metal remediation | [76,79] |
Diploneis | 9 | * | Needs testing; possible remediation candidate for heavy metals | [55] |
Ditylum | 2 | * | Needs testing; possible heavy metal remediation | [52] |
Epithemia | 1 | * | Needs testing and more investigation | [76] |
Ethmodiscus | 1 | * | Needs testing and more investigation | [52,76] |
Eucampia | 2 | * | Needs testing and more investigation | [52,76] |
Fragilaria | 4 | * | Needs testing; benthic diatoms are sensitive to sediment contamination; can be used to monitor, resist, and accumulate Cd and Zn | [79,87,88] |
Glyphodesmis | 1 | * | Needs testing and more investigation | [52,89] |
Gossleriella | 1 | * | Requires further testing and investigation; acts as smart nanocontainers capable of adsorbing various trace metals, dyes, polymers, and drugs, some of which are hazardous to human and aquatic life | [68,90,91] |
Grammatophora | 1 | * | Needs testing and more investigation; may play a role in degradation, speciation, and detoxification of chemical waste and hazardous metals | [2,46,76] |
Guinardia | 1 | * | Needs testing and more investigation; can reduce the toxicity of heavy metals by enhancing extracellular adsorption | [2,46,76] |
Gyrosigma | 2 | Promising role in phycoremediation and as a pollution indicator | More investigation is needed; can be used as agent for wastewater treatment and biofuels research | [92,93,94,95] |
Hemiaulus | 3 | * | Further investigation is needed into possible role in metal pollution and its impact on essential processes, such as nitrogen fixation, food production, and climate change mitigation through CO2 utilization | [70,96,97] |
Hemidiscus | 2 | * | Needs more investigation; possible remediation of heavy metals | [2,46,85] |
Hydrosilicon | 1 | * Possible role in industrial effluents | Needs more investigation; phycoremediation proved in some diatoms | [85,91] |
Lauderia | 1 | * | Needs more investigation; phycoremediation of heavy metals is possible | [2,46,76] |
Leptocylindrus | 1 | * Possible candidate for phycoremediation of industrial effluents | Needs a proof; possible role in heavy metal remediation | [2,46,70,98] |
Licmophora | 2 | Possible candidate for phycoremediation | Needs testing; possible roles in maintaining marine ecosystems | [25,85,99] |
Mastogloia | 1 | * | More investigation is needed; possible detoxification of chemical wastes and hazardous metals from polluted sites; might remediate heavy metals | [2,46,76,100] |
Melosira | 1 | * | More investigation is needed; possible role in heavy metal remediation | [79,85] |
Navicula | 8 | Remediates petroleum hydrocarbons | More investigation is needed; proved efficient in removing Cd, Cu, and Zn from polluted sites; production of biofuels is very possible | [53,85,87,101] |
Nitzschia | 14 | Remediates petroleum hydrocarbons | More investigation is needed; could remediate heavy metals and dyes | [2,46,47,85,102] |
Paralia | 1 | * | Needs testing; indicator of pollution; could be potent metal bioremediation agent | [2,46,47,48] |
Pinnularia | 1 | * | Needs more testing; can remediate various pollutants, such as heavy metals, dyes, and hydrocarbons detected in wastewater | [48,91] |
Plagiogramma | 1 | * | Needs testing; increases the production of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS)#, which bind to the metal nanoparticles outside the cell | [48,70] |
Planktoniella | 1 | * | Needs more investigation; might assimilate heavy metals, tolerate heavy metals; biological pollution indicator of water quality; efficient model in assimilation and detoxification of toxic metal ions | [103,104,105,106] |
Pleurosigma | 9 | * | Needs more investigation; possible heavy metal remediation | [2,46,52,107] |
Podocystis | 1 | * | Needs more investigation; might survive polluted seawater and remediate heavy metals; produces some bioactive agents in various aspects of energy, pharmaceuticals, and aquaculture feedstocks | [80,108,109] |
Podosira | 1 | * | Needs more investigation; possible role in heavy metal remediation | [2,46,60] |
Rhabdonema | 2 | * | Needs more investigation; possible role in heavy metal remediation | [52,70,108] |
Raphoneis | 1 | * | Needs more investigation; might activate defense mechanisms, such as the production of antioxidants and/or metal chelators; possible metal remediation | [71,107,110] |
Rhizosolenia | 22 | * | Needs further investigation; extracts of these species might have antibacterial activity against human pathogens | [48,79,111] |
Rhoicosigma | 1 | * | Needs more investigation; might remediate heavy metals | [78,112,113] |
Schroederella | 1 | * | Needs testing; can reduce the toxicity of heavy metals; possible biosensing pollution; might be ideal bioindicators | [2,46,52,91] |
Skeletonema | 1 | * | Needs further investigation; contains some important bioactive compounds, such as vitamins, polyunsaturated fatty acids, polysaccharides, and pigments; biological indicators; can reduce the toxicity of heavy metals | [55,105,114] |
Stauroneis | 2 | * | Needs more investigation; might remediate heavy metals; could increase the production of EPS# to bind metal nanoparticles outside the cell | [55,60,70] |
Streptotheca | 1 | * | Needs more investigation; can reduce the toxicity of heavy metals by enhancing extracellular adsorption | [2,46,52] |
Striatella | 2 | * | Needs more investigation; might play a role in detoxification of heavy metals | [60,76,78,112] |
Surirella. | 8 | * | Needs more investigation; might remediate heavy metals | [55,91] |
Synedra | 3 | * Remediate hydrophobic hydrocarbons from aquatic systems | More investigation is needed; might produce potent metal bioremediation | [2,46,115] |
Thalassionema | 1 | * | Needs more investigation; might remediate heavy metals | [2,46,55] |
Thalassiosira | 2 | Degrade and remediate petroleum hydrocarbons | More investigation is needed to study the phycoremediation of petroleum hydrocarbons of oil and gas activities; has been used for genetic manipulation to study many physiological activities including silica biomineralization; possible biofuel production | [27,116,117,118] |
Thalassiothrix | 4 | * | Needs further investigation; might help to maintain and stabilize heavy metals, and increase the production of EPS | [55,70,108] |
Trachyneis | 1 | Little work has been done | Needs testing and investigation; might be useful for heavy metal remediation and bioindicators | [109,119] |
Triceratium | 5 | * | Needs more investigation; might offer several advantages as potent metal bioremediation agent | [2,46,55,60] |
Tropidoneis | 1 | * | Further investigation is needed as it might be capable of heavy metal remediation and could increase the production of EPS, boosting resistance against various environmental stresses, including pollution | [52,70,120] |
Production and Applications | Genera | Remarks * |
---|---|---|
Antibacterial | Actinoptychus, Chaetoceros, Rhizosolenia | Chaetoceros comprises about 34 species that require modern research to develop antibacterial products |
Antioxidants | Amphora, Cerataulina, Raphoneis | Some chemicals are produced under extreme stress conditions, such as those caused by pollution from oil and gas activities. These chemicals are unstable and can damage cell membranes and other structures. Diatoms under such conditions may produce antioxidants as a protective response |
Aquaculture feedstocks | Cocconeis, Coscinosira, Podocystis | Aquaculture feedstocks are raw materials used to feed aquatic organisms in aquaculture, including fish, shellfish, and aquatic plants |
Biofuels | Amphiprora, Climacodium, Cocconeis, Coscinosira, Guinardia, Gyrosigma, Navicula, Podocystis | Biofuels are fuels made from renewable biological sources. Many types of biofuels are known, including ethanol, biodiesel, biogas, biojet kerosene, and sustainable aviation fuel |
Bioindicators | Cocconeis, Corethron, Coscinosira, Dactyliosolen, Fragilaria, Paralia, Planktoniella, Schroederella, Skeletonema, Trachyneis | A bioindicator is a living organism that reflects the health of an environment. Bioindicators can exhibit changes in various aspects, such as physiology, chemistry, or behavior. Phytoplankton responds quickly to environmental changes, making it an effective indicator of water pollution |
Dyes | Nitzschia, Pinnularia | Dyes refer to a variety of pigments and related components, such as carotenoids, chlorophylls, polyphenols, and marennine, a blue-green pigment produced by certain diatoms |
EPS production | Plagiogramma, Stauroneis, Thalassiothrix, Tropidoneis | EPS, or extracellular polymeric substances, are produced by microorganisms and have potential applications in wastewater sludge treatment |
Phycoremediation: phyto-mining (heavy metals), and green liver model (degradation of organic compounds) | Asterolampra, Asteromphalus, Auliscus, Bacillaria, Bacteriastrum, Campylodiscus, Cerataulina, Climacodium, Climacosphenia, Cocconeis, Corethron, Coscinosira, Cyclotella (HM: Ti), Cylindrotheca, Cymbella, Dactyliosolen, Diatoma, Diploneis, Ditylum, Gossleriella, Grammatophora, Guinardia, Gyrosigm, Hemiaulus, Hemidiscus, Hydrosilicon, Lauderia, Mastogloia, Navicula, Nitzschia, Paralia, Pinnularia, Planktoniella, Podocystis, Raphoneis, Schroederella, Streptotheca, Striatella, Synedra, Thalassionema, Thalassiothrix, Trachyneis, Triceratium, Tropidoneis | Most diatoms can remediate heavy metals, a topic that requires in-depth research to understand their roles in polluted seawater. The remediation of heavy metals includes detoxification and testing, while organic compounds from oil and gas activities primarily involve petroleum hydrocarbons |
Nutritional | Bellerochea, Biddulphia, Climacodium | Diatoms are among the most sustainable sources of nutrients for humans. They are a major source of oxygen, serve as a key food source for higher organisms, and remove significant amounts of CO2 while synthesizing various metabolites. Diatoms produce a wide range of primary metabolites, including proteins, peptides, fatty acids, sterols, and polysaccharides. Their secondary metabolites include carotenoids, polyphenols, high-value molecules, and silica nanoparticles |
Pharmaceuticals | Bellerochea, Climacodium, Cocconeis, Coscinosira, Podocystis | Chrysolaminarin, eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, omega fatty acids, fucoxanthin, and biosilica are all substances with potential anticancer properties |
Various applications | Amphora (against toxicities of other organisms), Chaetoceros (various applications), Climacodium (biofertilizers), Cyclotella (accumulates titanium), Gossleriella (smart nanocontainer for various agents), Hemiaulus (nitrogen fixation, food production, climate change), Skeletonema (production of vitamins, pigments, polyunsaturated fatty acids), Tropidoneis (resistant against pollution) | Several roles and applications have been reported |
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Al-Thani, R.F.; Yasseen, B.T. The Role of Phytoplankton in Phycoremediation of Polluted Seawater: Risks, Benefits to Human Health, and a Focus on Diatoms in the Arabian Gulf. Water 2025, 17, 920. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17070920
Al-Thani RF, Yasseen BT. The Role of Phytoplankton in Phycoremediation of Polluted Seawater: Risks, Benefits to Human Health, and a Focus on Diatoms in the Arabian Gulf. Water. 2025; 17(7):920. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17070920
Chicago/Turabian StyleAl-Thani, Roda F., and Bassam T. Yasseen. 2025. "The Role of Phytoplankton in Phycoremediation of Polluted Seawater: Risks, Benefits to Human Health, and a Focus on Diatoms in the Arabian Gulf" Water 17, no. 7: 920. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17070920
APA StyleAl-Thani, R. F., & Yasseen, B. T. (2025). The Role of Phytoplankton in Phycoremediation of Polluted Seawater: Risks, Benefits to Human Health, and a Focus on Diatoms in the Arabian Gulf. Water, 17(7), 920. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17070920