Water

428 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stochastic Flocculation Model for Cohesive Sediment Suspended in Water

by Hyun Jung Shin, Minwoo Son and Guan-hong Lee

Water 2015, 7(5), 2527-2541; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052527 - 22 May 2015

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5888

Existing flocculation models for cohesive sediments are classified into two groups: population balance equation models (PBE) and floc growth models. An FGM ensures mass conservation in a closed system. However, an FGM determines only the average size of flocs, whereas a PBE has [...] Read more.

Existing flocculation models for cohesive sediments are classified into two groups: population balance equation models (PBE) and floc growth models. An FGM ensures mass conservation in a closed system. However, an FGM determines only the average size of flocs, whereas a PBE has the capability to calculate a size distribution of flocs. A new stochastic approach to model the flocculation process is theoretically developed and incorporated into a deterministic FGM in this study in order to calculate a size distribution of flocs as well as the average size. A log-normal distribution is used to generate random numbers based on previous laboratory experiments. The new stochastic flocculation model is tested with three laboratory experiment results. It was found and validated with measured data that the new stochastic flocculation model has the capability to replicate a size distribution of flocs reasonably well under different sediment and carrier flow conditions. Three more distributions (normal; Pearson type 3; and generalized extreme value distributions) were also tested. From the comparison with results of different distribution functions, it is shown that a stochastic FGM using a log-normal distribution has a comparative advantage in terms of simplicity and accuracy. Full article

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750 KiB

Open AccessArticle

CO₂ Reduction Potential of Water Saving in Vietnam

by Takayuki Otani, Kanako Toyosada and Yasutoshi Shimizu

Water 2015, 7(5), 2516-2526; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052516 - 22 May 2015

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6684

Abstract

In a previous study, we showed that widespread adoption of water-saving equipment had the potential to reduce CO₂ emissions by 1% in Japan. The usage of already diffused equipment was used as an evaluation baseline. This was an evaluation model of developed [...] Read more.

In a previous study, we showed that widespread adoption of water-saving equipment had the potential to reduce CO₂ emissions by 1% in Japan. The usage of already diffused equipment was used as an evaluation baseline. This was an evaluation model of developed countries. In order to evaluate the potential benefits of water-saving in developing countries, it is necessary to set the baseline, as cities in developing countries are expected to have the necessary infrastructure in place in the near future. In this paper, the potential for reducing CO₂ emissions by water saving in Vietnam was evaluated. Based on the development of water infrastructure, and envisioning a society in which the latest high-efficiency flush toilet bowls and showers installed in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City are used in all Vietnamese houses as a near future baseline, we evaluated the potential reduction when a water-saving project is implemented. Under these conditions, an 8.8% reduction in CO₂ emissions in Vietnam would be achieved by the widespread adoption of water-saving equipment. Following the recognition of the large environmental contribution potential of water saving, a water-saving project has been planned for implementation in Vietnam in the near future. Full article

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1109 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal River Discharge Forecasting Using Support Vector Regression: A Case Study in the Italian Alps

by Mattia Callegari, Paolo Mazzoli, Ludovica De Gregorio, Claudia Notarnicola, Luca Pasolli, Marcello Petitta and Alberto Pistocchi

Water 2015, 7(5), 2494-2515; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052494 - 22 May 2015

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7475

Abstract

In this contribution we analyze the performance of a monthly river discharge forecasting model with a Support Vector Regression (SVR) technique in a European alpine area. We considered as predictors the discharges of the antecedent months, snow-covered area (SCA), and meteorological and climatic [...] Read more.

In this contribution we analyze the performance of a monthly river discharge forecasting model with a Support Vector Regression (SVR) technique in a European alpine area. We considered as predictors the discharges of the antecedent months, snow-covered area (SCA), and meteorological and climatic variables for 14 catchments in South Tyrol (Northern Italy), as well as the long-term average discharge of the month of prediction, also regarded as a benchmark. Forecasts at a six-month lead time tend to perform no better than the benchmark, with an average 33% relative root mean square error (RMSE%) on test samples. However, at one month lead time, RMSE% was 22%, a non-negligible improvement over the benchmark; moreover, the SVR model reduces the frequency of higher errors associated with anomalous months. Predictions with a lead time of three months show an intermediate performance between those at one and six months lead time. Among the considered predictors, SCA alone reduces RMSE% to 6% and 5% compared to using monthly discharges only, for a lead time equal to one and three months, respectively, whereas meteorological parameters bring only minor improvements. The model also outperformed a simpler linear autoregressive model, and yielded the lowest volume error in forecasting with one month lead time, while at longer lead times the differences compared to the benchmarks are negligible. Our results suggest that although an SVR model may deliver better forecasts than its simpler linear alternatives, long lead-time hydrological forecasting in Alpine catchments remains a challenge. Catchment state variables may play a bigger role than catchment input variables; hence a focus on characterizing seasonal catchment storage—Rather than seasonal weather forecasting—Could be key for improving our predictive capacity. Full article

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288 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards a Comprehensive Valuation of Water Management Projects When Data Availability Is Incomplete—The Use of Benefit Transfer Techniques

by Michael Ahlheim, Oliver Frör, Jing Luo, Sonna Pelz and Tong Jiang

Water 2015, 7(5), 2472-2493; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052472 - 22 May 2015

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5736

Abstract

In this paper we deal with the problem of missing data in environmental cost-benefit analysis. If government pursues the goal of maximizing social welfare, this implies that public funds should be allocated to those uses where they generate the highest net social benefit. [...] Read more.

In this paper we deal with the problem of missing data in environmental cost-benefit analysis. If government pursues the goal of maximizing social welfare, this implies that public funds should be allocated to those uses where they generate the highest net social benefit. This criterion makes it necessary to conduct cost-benefit analyses for public projects. While the assessment of project costs is typically rather straightforward, a comprehensive assessment of the project benefits is more complicated because one has to consider that also people living far away from the project site might benefit from that project. Neglecting these so-called passive use benefits would lead to a systematic undervaluation of environmental projects, thereby reducing their chances of being realized. A comprehensive cost-benefit analysis would, therefore, require benefit assessment studies in all areas where passive use values might occur. Obviously, this would be impossible. In this paper we show how the assessment of the social benefits from environmental projects can be enhanced even with an imperfect database by using benefit transfer techniques. This is also illustrated empirically using an example from Northwest China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Water Management and Decision Making under limited Data Availability)

5670 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aquifer Recharge Estimation through Atmospheric Chloride Mass Balance at Las Cañadas Caldera, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain

by Rayco Marrero-Diaz, Francisco J. Alcalá, Nemesio M. Pérez, Dina L. López, Gladys V. Melián, Eleazar Padrón and Germán D. Padilla

Water 2015, 7(5), 2451-2471; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052451 - 22 May 2015

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 9029

Abstract

The atmospheric chloride mass balance (CMB) method was used to estimate net aquifer recharge in Las Cañadas Caldera, an endorheic summit aquifer area about 2000 m a.s.l. with negligible surface runoff, which hosts the largest freshwater reserve in Tenerife Island, Canary Islands, Spain. [...] Read more.

The atmospheric chloride mass balance (CMB) method was used to estimate net aquifer recharge in Las Cañadas Caldera, an endorheic summit aquifer area about 2000 m a.s.l. with negligible surface runoff, which hosts the largest freshwater reserve in Tenerife Island, Canary Islands, Spain. The wet hydrological year 2005–2006 was selected to compare yearly atmospheric chloride bulk deposition and average chloride content in recharge water just above the water table, both deduced from periodical sampling. The potential contribution of chloride to groundwater from endogenous HCl gas may invalidate the CMB method. The chloride-to-bromide molar ratio was an efficient tracer used to select recharge water samples having atmospheric origin of chloride. Yearly net aquifer recharge was 631 mm year⁻¹, i.e., 69% of yearly precipitation. This result is in agreement with potential aquifer recharge estimated through an independent lumped-parameter rainfall-runoff model operated by the Insular Water Council of Tenerife. This paper illustrates basic procedures and routines to use the CMB method for aquifer recharge in active volcanic oceanic islands having sparse-data coverage and groundwater receiving contribution of endogenous halides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study, Development and Management of Water in Volcanic Areas)

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2756 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Way for Incorporating GCM Information into Water Shortage Projections

by Seung Beom Seo, Young-Oh Kim and Cho-Rong Kim

Water 2015, 7(5), 2435-2450; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052435 - 21 May 2015

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5356

Abstract

Climate change information is essential for water resources management planning, and the majority of research available uses the global circulation model (GCM) data to project future water balance. Despite the fact that the results of various GCMs are still heterogeneous, it is common [...] Read more.

Climate change information is essential for water resources management planning, and the majority of research available uses the global circulation model (GCM) data to project future water balance. Despite the fact that the results of various GCMs are still heterogeneous, it is common to utilize GCM values directly in climate change impact assessment models. To mitigate these limitations, this study provides an alternative methodology, which uses GCM-based data to assign weights on historical scenarios rather than to directly input their values into the assessment models, thereby reducing the uncertainty involved in the direct use of GCMs. Therefore, the real innovation of this study is placed on the use of a new probability weighting scheme with multiple GCMs rather than on the direct input of GCM-driven data. Applied to make future projections of the water shortage in the Han River basin of Korea, the proposed methodology produced conservative but realistic projection results (15% increase) compared to the existing methodologies, which projected a dramatic increase (144%) in water shortage over 10 years. As a result, it was anticipated that the amount of water shortages in the Han River basin would gradually increase in the next 90 years, including a 57% increase in the 2080s. Full article

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448 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Misgurnus anguillicaudatus and Cipangopaludina cathayensis on Pollutant Removal and Microbial Community in Constructed Wetlands

by Pengfei Li, Jian Zhang, Huijun Xie, Zhen Hu, Haiyan He and Wenxing Wang

Water 2015, 7(5), 2422-2434; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052422 - 21 May 2015

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6426

Abstract

Aquatic animals play an important role in the energy flow and matter cycling in the wetland ecosystem. However, little is known about their effects on pollutant removal performance and microbial community in constructed wetlands. This work presents an initial attempt to investigate the [...] Read more.

Aquatic animals play an important role in the energy flow and matter cycling in the wetland ecosystem. However, little is known about their effects on pollutant removal performance and microbial community in constructed wetlands. This work presents an initial attempt to investigate the effects of Misgurnus anguillicaudatus (loach) and Cipangopaludina cathayensis (snail) on nutrient removal performance and microbial community of constructed wetlands (CWs). Compared with a control group, CW microcosms with aquatic animals exhibited better pollutant removal performance. The removal efficiencies of total phosphorus (TP) in the loach group were 13.1% higher than in the control group, and snails increased the ammonium removal most effectively. Moreover, the concentration of total organic carbon (TOC) and TP in sediment significantly reduced with the addition of loaches and snails (p < 0.05), whereas the concentration of total nitrogen (TN) showed an obvious increase with the addition of loaches. High-throughput sequencing showed a microbial community structure change. Loaches and snails in wetlands changed the microbial diversity, especially in the Proteobacteria and denitrifying community. Results suggested that benthic aquatic animals might play an important role in CW ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Control and Management)

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642 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Helminth Egg Removal Capacity of UASB Reactors under Subtropical Conditions

by Rosa-Elena Yaya-Beas, Christian Ayala-Limaylla, Katarzyna Kujawa-Roeleveld, Jules B. Van Lier and Grietje Zeeman

Water 2015, 7(5), 2402-2421; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052402 - 21 May 2015

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 10085 | Correction

Abstract

This research was conducted to study the anaerobic sludge filtration capacity regarding helminth egg removal in upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors. Two 25 L lab-scale UASB reactors were operated at an ambient temperature which varied between 17.1 and 28.6 °C. Ascaris suum [...] Read more.

This research was conducted to study the anaerobic sludge filtration capacity regarding helminth egg removal in upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors. Two 25 L lab-scale UASB reactors were operated at an ambient temperature which varied between 17.1 and 28.6 °C. Ascaris suum egg was selected as the model egg considering its similarity in terms of size and morphology to Ascaris lumbricoides, a human pathogen. Ascaris suum eggs were obtained from female parasites of infected pigs. The anaerobic sludge filtration capacity was performed applying upflow velocities between 0.09 and 0.68 m·h⁻¹. Three sludge bed heights in the range of 0.30–0.40 m, 0.50–0.60 m and 0.60–0.70 m were applied. These sludge bed heights corresponded to 19%–25%, 31%–38% and 38%–44% of the total reactor height, respectively. Under the mentioned conditions, the average helminth egg removal efficiency was reciprocally correlated to the imposed upflow velocity. The studied lab-scale reactors reported an average helminth egg removal between 34%–100%, 30%–91% and 34%–56%, when the sludge bed in the UASB reactor was 19%–25%, 31%–38% and 38%–44% of the total reactor height, respectively. The decreased filtration capacity at increasing sludge bed heights might be likely related to biogas production and channeling formation. The average helminth egg removal efficiency in the control experiments performed without any sludge bed, by plain sedimentation, varied between 44% and 66%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Treatment and Human Health)

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761 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling of Soil Water and Salt Dynamics and Its Effects on Root Water Uptake in Heihe Arid Wetland, Gansu, China

by Huijie Li, Jun Yi, Jianguo Zhang, Ying Zhao, Bingcheng Si, Robert Lee Hill, Lele Cui and Xiaoyu Liu

Water 2015, 7(5), 2382-2401; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052382 - 21 May 2015

Cited by 70 | Viewed by 8588

Abstract

In the Heihe River basin, China, increased salinity and water shortages present serious threats to the sustainability of arid wetlands. It is critical to understand the interactions between soil water and salts (from saline shallow groundwater and the river) and their effects on [...] Read more.

In the Heihe River basin, China, increased salinity and water shortages present serious threats to the sustainability of arid wetlands. It is critical to understand the interactions between soil water and salts (from saline shallow groundwater and the river) and their effects on plant growth under the influence of shallow groundwater and irrigation. In this study, the Hydrus-1D model was used in an arid wetland of the Middle Heihe River to investigate the effects of the dynamics of soil water, soil salinization, and depth to water table (DWT) as well as groundwater salinity on Chinese tamarisk root water uptake. The modeled soil water and electrical conductivity of soil solution (EC_sw) are in good agreement with the observations, as indicated by RMSE values (0.031 and 0.046 cm³·cm⁻³ for soil water content, 0.037 and 0.035 dS·m⁻¹ for EC_sw, during the model calibration and validation periods, respectively). The calibrated model was used in scenario analyses considering different DWTs, salinity levels and the introduction of preseason irrigation. The results showed that (I) Chinese tamarisk root distribution was greatly affected by soil water and salt distribution in the soil profile, with about 73.8% of the roots being distributed in the 20–60 cm layer; (II) root water uptake accounted for 91.0% of the potential maximal value when water stress was considered, and for 41.6% when both water and salt stress were considered; (III) root water uptake was very sensitive to fluctuations of the water table, and was greatly reduced when the DWT was either dropped or raised 60% of the 2012 reference depth; (IV) arid wetland vegetation exhibited a high level of groundwater dependence even though shallow groundwater resulted in increased soil salinization and (V) preseason irrigation could effectively increase root water uptake by leaching salts from the root zone. We concluded that a suitable water table and groundwater salinity coupled with proper irrigation are key factors to sustainable development of arid wetlands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydro-Ecological Modeling)

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3073 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Model Calibration Criteria for Estimating Ecological Flow Characteristics

by Marc Vis, Rodney Knight, Sandra Pool, William Wolfe and Jan Seibert

Water 2015, 7(5), 2358-2381; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052358 - 20 May 2015

Cited by 51 | Viewed by 10465

Abstract

Quantification of streamflow characteristics in ungauged catchments remains a challenge. Hydrological modeling is often used to derive flow time series and to calculate streamflow characteristics for subsequent applications that may differ from those envisioned by the modelers. While the estimation of model parameters [...] Read more.

Quantification of streamflow characteristics in ungauged catchments remains a challenge. Hydrological modeling is often used to derive flow time series and to calculate streamflow characteristics for subsequent applications that may differ from those envisioned by the modelers. While the estimation of model parameters for ungauged catchments is a challenging research task in itself, it is important to evaluate whether simulated time series preserve critical aspects of the streamflow hydrograph. To address this question, seven calibration objective functions were evaluated for their ability to preserve ecologically relevant streamflow characteristics of the average annual hydrograph using a runoff model, HBV-light, at 27 catchments in the southeastern United States. Calibration trials were repeated 100 times to reduce parameter uncertainty effects on the results, and 12 ecological flow characteristics were computed for comparison. Our results showed that the most suitable calibration strategy varied according to streamflow characteristic. Combined objective functions generally gave the best results, though a clear underprediction bias was observed. The occurrence of low prediction errors for certain combinations of objective function and flow characteristic suggests that (1) incorporating multiple ecological flow characteristics into a single objective function would increase model accuracy, potentially benefitting decision-making processes; and (2) there may be a need to have different objective functions available to address specific applications of the predicted time series. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydro-Ecological Modeling)

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355 KiB

Open AccessOpinion

China’s Policy on Dams at the Crossroads: Removal or Further Construction?

by Chiyuan Miao, Alistair G. L. Borthwick, Honghu Liu and Jigen Liu

Water 2015, 7(5), 2349-2357; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052349 - 19 May 2015

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 8624

Abstract

During the past century, the number and scale of reservoirs worldwide has grown substantially to meet the demand for water and hydropower arising from increased population, industrialization, and urbanization. This is particularly the case in China, where reservoir construction increased rapidly after the [...] Read more.

During the past century, the number and scale of reservoirs worldwide has grown substantially to meet the demand for water and hydropower arising from increased population, industrialization, and urbanization. This is particularly the case in China, where reservoir construction increased rapidly after the Chinese economic reform and the introduction of open-door policies. On average, 4.4 large reservoirs with a capacity greater than 0.1 km³ were constructed per annum during the 1970s–1990s. This average reached 11.8 such reservoirs per annum in the 2000s. Considering the adverse impact of dams on rivers and riparian communities, various environmentalists and non-governmental organizations in China have begun to protest against the construction of dams. Now China’s policy on dams is at a crossroads: Removal or further construction? In this paper, we systematically assess the construction of reservoirs in China and discuss the benefits and drawbacks of large-scale reservoir projects on several major rivers in China: The Yangtze River, the Yellow River and the Mekong River. Lastly, we provide a perspective on the future of reservoir development in China, taking into account natural conditions, renewable hydropower resources, and greenhouse gas emissions. Full article

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8832 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Short Global History of Fountains

by Petri S. Juuti, Georgios P. Antoniou, Walter Dragoni, Fatma El-Gohary, Giovanni De Feo, Tapio S. Katko, Riikka P. Rajala, Xiao Yun Zheng, Renato Drusiani and Andreas N. Angelakis

Water 2015, 7(5), 2314-2348; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052314 - 19 May 2015

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 17323

Abstract

Water fountains are part of every human settlement, and historical and mythological stories. They are the source from which life-sustaining water was distributed to people until piped systems started providing fresh tap water inside buildings. In many places, people visit fountains to experience [...] Read more.

Water fountains are part of every human settlement, and historical and mythological stories. They are the source from which life-sustaining water was distributed to people until piped systems started providing fresh tap water inside buildings. In many places, people visit fountains to experience the freshness of running water, to prepare for prayers, or to make a wish. Fountains have also provided water for the people of cities under siege, and purified believers as part of holy rites. The Castalia shrine in Delphi, Greece, for its part, is a spot where various groups of people come to socialize, which greatly improves the quality of their lives. This paper is a look back through the history of fountains in various parts of the world. Experts from various areas have identified the historic, cultural, and ritualistic aspects of fountains and their findings are summarized. The paper concludes by providing a glimpse into the role of fountains in modern society and their continued influence in our lives today. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Impact of DEM Resolution on Puddle Characterization: Comparison of Different Surfaces and Methods

by Jianli Zhang and Xuefeng Chu

Water 2015, 7(5), 2293-2313; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052293 - 18 May 2015

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7335

Abstract

DEM-based topographic characterization and quantification of surface depression storage are critical to hydrologic and environmental modeling. Mixed conclusions have been obtained from previous studies on the relationship between maximum depression storage (MDS) and DEM grid spacing, which is affected by different factors, such [...] Read more.

DEM-based topographic characterization and quantification of surface depression storage are critical to hydrologic and environmental modeling. Mixed conclusions have been obtained from previous studies on the relationship between maximum depression storage (MDS) and DEM grid spacing, which is affected by different factors, such as topographic characteristics, surface delineation methods and DEM interpolation/aggregation methods. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of DEM resolution on topographic characterization with the consideration of these three factors. Twenty-three topographic surfaces (including ideal surfaces, laboratory-scale soil surfaces and watershed-scale land surfaces) were selected, and five software packages, ArcHydro, PCRaster, HEC-GeoHMS, TauDEM and PD (puddle delineation), were used for surface delineation. Our results indicated that MDS, maximum ponding area (MPA) and the number of puddles (NP) decreased with increasing grid spacing for most smoother surfaces due to the loss of topographic detail. For most rough surfaces (e.g., mountain-type surfaces with significant variations in surface elevations), however, the changing patterns of MDS and MPA varied with an increase in grid spacing mainly due to the unreal “artificial depressions/puddles” generated during the interpolation/aggregation process. This study emphasizes the importance of topographic characteristics, DEM resolution and surface delineation methods. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Effect of COD:SO₄ ²⁻ Ratio, HRT and Linoleic Acid Concentration on Mesophilic Sulfate Reduction: Reactor Performance and Microbial Population Dynamics

by Chungman Moon, Rajesh Singh, Sathyanarayan S. Veeravalli, Saravanan R. Shanmugam, Subba Rao Chaganti, Jerald A. Lalman and Daniel D. Heath

Water 2015, 7(5), 2275-2292; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052275 - 18 May 2015

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 8249

Abstract

Biological sulfate (SO₄²⁻) reduction was examined in anaerobic sequential batch reactors (ASBRs) operated under different hydraulic retention times (HRTs) ranging from 12 to 36 h and COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)/SO₄²⁻) ratios of 2.4, 1.6 and 0.8. Competition [...] Read more.

Biological sulfate (SO₄²⁻) reduction was examined in anaerobic sequential batch reactors (ASBRs) operated under different hydraulic retention times (HRTs) ranging from 12 to 36 h and COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)/SO₄²⁻) ratios of 2.4, 1.6 and 0.8. Competition between SO₄²⁻ reducing bacteria (SRBs), methane producing archaea (MPAs) and homoacetogens (HACs) was examined in controls and cultures treated with linoleic acid (LA). The ASBR performance was influenced by the COD/SO₄²⁻ ratio in control cultures with a SO₄²⁻ reduction of 87% at a COD/SO₄²⁻ ratio of 0.8. At a 12 h HRT, in both control and LA treated cultures, greater than 75% SO₄²⁻ removal was observed under all the conditions examined. In control reactors operating at a 36 h HRT, high levels of MPAs belonging to Methanobacteriales and Methanosarcinales were detected; however, in comparison, under low COD/SO₄²⁻ ratio and with decreasing HRT conditions, a relative increase in SRBs belonging to Desulfovibrio and Desulfatibacillum was observed. Adding 0.5 g·L⁻¹ LA suppressed Methanobacteriales, while increasing the LA concentration to 1 g·L⁻¹ completely suppressed MPAs with a relative increase in SRBs. HACs belonging to Bacteroidetes were observed in the control and in cultures operated at 12 h HRT with a COD/SO₄²⁻ ratio of 1.6 and fed 0.5 g·L⁻¹ LA; however, with all other LA levels (0.5 and 1.0 g·L⁻¹) and HRTs (12, 24 and 36 h), HACs were not detected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Control and Management)

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159 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Sustainable Drainage Systems

by Miklas Scholz

Water 2015, 7(5), 2272-2274; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052272 - 15 May 2015

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 10123

Abstract

Urban water management has somewhat changed since the publication of The Sustainable Drainage System (SuDS) Manual in 2007 [1], transforming from building traditional sewers to implementing SuDS, which are part of the best management practice techniques used in the USA and seen as [...] Read more.

Urban water management has somewhat changed since the publication of The Sustainable Drainage System (SuDS) Manual in 2007 [1], transforming from building traditional sewers to implementing SuDS, which are part of the best management practice techniques used in the USA and seen as contributing to water-sensitive urban design in Australia. Most SuDS, such as infiltration trenches, swales, green roofs, ponds, and wetlands, address water quality and quantity challenges, and enhance the local biodiversity while also being acceptable aesthetically to the public. Barriers to the implementation of SuDS include adoption problems, flood and diffuse pollution control challenges, negative public perception, and a lack of decision support tools addressing, particularly, the retrofitting of these systems while enhancing ecosystem services. [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Drainage Systems)

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6375 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Incident Rainfall Redistribution by Maize Canopy on Soil Moisture at the Crop Row Scale

by Marco Martello, Nicola Dal Ferro, Lucia Bortolini and Francesco Morari

Water 2015, 7(5), 2254-2271; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052254 - 15 May 2015

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 7270

Abstract

The optimization of irrigation use in agriculture is a key challenge to increase farm profitability and reduce its ecological footprint. To this context, an understanding of more efficient irrigation systems includes the assessment of water redistribution at the microscale. This study aimed to [...] Read more.

The optimization of irrigation use in agriculture is a key challenge to increase farm profitability and reduce its ecological footprint. To this context, an understanding of more efficient irrigation systems includes the assessment of water redistribution at the microscale. This study aimed to investigate rainfall interception by maize canopy and to model the soil water dynamics at row scale as a result of rain and sprinkler irrigation with HYDRUS 2D/3D. On average, 78% of rainfall below the maize canopy was intercepted by the leaves and transferred along the stem (stemflow), while only 22% reached the ground directly (throughfall). In addition, redistribution of the water with respect to the amount (both rain and irrigation) showed that the stemflow/throughfall ratio decreased logarithmically at increasing values of incident rainfall, suggesting the plant capacity to confine the water close to the roots and diminish water stress conditions. This was also underlined by higher soil moisture values observed in the row than in the inter-row at decreasing rainfall events. Modelled data highlighted different behavior in terms of soil water dynamics between simulated irrigation water distributions, although they did not show significant changes in terms of crop water use efficiency. These results were most likely affected by the soil type (silty-loam) where the experiment was conducted, as it had unfavorable physical conditions for the rapid vertical water movement that would have increased infiltration and drainage. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Analysis of Extreme Hourly Precipitation Patterns in Hainan Island, South China

by Wenjie Chen, Chenghao Chen, Longbing Li, Litao Xing, Guoru Huang and Chuanhao Wu

Water 2015, 7(5), 2239-2253; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052239 - 13 May 2015

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6689

Abstract

To analyze extreme precipitation patterns in Hainan Island, hourly precipitation datasets from 18 stations, for the period from 1967 to 2012, were investigated. Two precipitation concentration indices (PCI) and 11 extreme precipitation indices (EPI) were chosen. PCI1 indicated a moderate seasonality in yearly [...] Read more.

To analyze extreme precipitation patterns in Hainan Island, hourly precipitation datasets from 18 stations, for the period from 1967 to 2012, were investigated. Two precipitation concentration indices (PCI) and 11 extreme precipitation indices (EPI) were chosen. PCI1 indicated a moderate seasonality in yearly precipitation and PCI2 showed that at least 80% of the total precipitation fell in 20% of the rainiest hours. Furthermore, the spatial variations of PCI1 and PCI2 differed. Linear regression indicated increasing trends in 11 of the calculated EPI. Principal component analysis found that the first recalculated principal component represented the 11 EPI. The recalculated principal component revealed an increasing trend in precipitation extremes for the whole island (except the interior section). Trend stability analysis of several of EPI suggested that the southern parts of Hainan Island, and especially the city of Sanya, should receive more attention to establish the drainage facilities necessary to prevent waterlogging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrologic System Analysis, Patterns, and Predictions for Arid and Semi-arid Environment)

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Open AccessArticle

A Heuristic Dynamically Dimensioned Search with Sensitivity Information (HDDS-S) and Application to River Basin Management

by Jinggang Chu, Yong Peng, Wei Ding and Yu Li

Water 2015, 7(5), 2214-2238; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052214 - 13 May 2015

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5695

Abstract

River basin simulation and multi-reservoir optimal operation have been critical for river basin management. Due to the intense interaction between human activities and river basin systems, the river basin model and multi-reservoir operation model are complicated with a large number of parameters. Therefore, [...] Read more.

River basin simulation and multi-reservoir optimal operation have been critical for river basin management. Due to the intense interaction between human activities and river basin systems, the river basin model and multi-reservoir operation model are complicated with a large number of parameters. Therefore, fast and stable optimization algorithms are required for river basin management under the changing conditions of climate and current human activities. This study presents a new global optimization algorithm, named as heuristic dynamically dimensioned search with sensitivity information (HDDS-S), to effectively perform river basin simulation and multi-reservoir optimal operation during river basin management. The HDDS-S algorithm is built on the dynamically dimensioned search (DDS) algorithm; and has an improved computational efficiency while maintaining its search capacity compared to the original DDS algorithm. This is mainly due to the non-uniform probability assigned to each decision variable on the basis of its changing sensitivity to the optimization objectives during the adaptive change from global to local search with dimensionality reduced. This study evaluates the new algorithm by comparing its performance with the DDS algorithm on a river basin model calibration problem and a multi-reservoir optimal operation problem. The results obtained indicate that the HDDS-S algorithm outperforms the DDS algorithm in terms of search ability and computational efficiency in the two specific problems. In addition; similar to the DDS algorithm; the HDDS-S algorithm is easy to use as it does not require any parameter tuning and automatically adjusts its search to find good solutions given an available computational budget. Full article

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318 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Actors’ Perceptions of Issues in the Implementation of the First Round of the Water Framework Directive: Examples from the Water Management and Forestry Sectors in Southern Sweden

by E. Carina H. Keskitalo

Water 2015, 7(5), 2202-2213; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052202 - 12 May 2015

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4734

Abstract

The EU Water Framework Directive exerts a major impact on water management structure and aims, and water use activities in the member states. This paper reviews the perceptions of the early WFD implementation in a case study area in southern Sweden. The focus [...] Read more.

The EU Water Framework Directive exerts a major impact on water management structure and aims, and water use activities in the member states. This paper reviews the perceptions of the early WFD implementation in a case study area in southern Sweden. The focus is on the perceptions of both water management and forestry actors, the latter as a potential diffuse source impact on water quality. This study highlights the considerable complexity of reorienting or rescaling governance given the complex existing systems particular to the area, the multi-interpretable early policies on implementation and the complexity of interpreting the regionally-focused WFD approach in the largely locally-focused Swedish system. While the first phase of implementation is now long past, conclusions on the complexity of reorienting systems remain relevant, particularly with regard to non-point sources. Full article

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456 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of a Eutrophic Lake to the River Downstream: Spatiotemporal Algal Composition Changes and the Driving Factors

by Qian Yu, Yongcan Chen, Zhaowei Liu, Nick Van De Giesen and Dejun Zhu

Water 2015, 7(5), 2184-2201; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052184 - 12 May 2015

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6665

Abstract

Algal blooms have been frequently found at the upper reaches of the Tanglang River, which is downstream from the eutrophic Dianchi Lake. The eutrophic lake upstream is considered to be a potential source of phytoplankton, which contributes to the development of harmful algal [...] Read more.

Algal blooms have been frequently found at the upper reaches of the Tanglang River, which is downstream from the eutrophic Dianchi Lake. The eutrophic lake upstream is considered to be a potential source of phytoplankton, which contributes to the development of harmful algal blooms in the river downstream and can cause many serious problems for the river ecology. However, few studies focused on these kinds of rivers. Therefore, a field observation and laboratory analysis were conducted in this study. The results showed that the Tanglang River was obviously spatially heterogeneous due to the eutrophic Dianchi Lake upstream. The toxic Microcystis from the Dianchi Lake dominated the phytoplankton at the upper reaches, but these were gradually, rather than immediately, replaced by centric diatoms and chlorococalean green algae in the middle and lower reaches. The results of correlation analysis indicated that the changes in hydrodynamic conditions and underwater light intensity accounted for the spatial variations. The differences in the adaptability of different algae to changing aquatic environments explained the spatial variations of phytoplankton abundance. The dominant algae, most of which was from the Dianchi Lake upstream, determined the characteristics of the total abundance at the Tanglang River. Full article

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976 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Water Information as a Tool to Enhance Sustainable Water Management—The Australian Experience

by James Horne

Water 2015, 7(5), 2161-2183; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052161 - 12 May 2015

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7158

Abstract

Many countries and regions have struggled to put in place adequate water information systems to assist with sustainable water management. This article describes and assesses the key components of Australia’s water information and data systems, with particular reference to rural and regional Australia, [...] Read more.

Many countries and regions have struggled to put in place adequate water information systems to assist with sustainable water management. This article describes and assesses the key components of Australia’s water information and data systems, with particular reference to rural and regional Australia, focusing on progress with strengthening these systems at a national level since 2007. Through the early part of the period, much of Australia was experiencing a crisis in water availability. The article concludes with ongoing challenges for Australia and lessons from the Australian experience for other countries embarking on upgrading their water information and data systems. Upgrading a nation’s water information systems is a long-term task, but an important one in a world of climate change and increased climate variability. Substantial progress is likely to take five to 10 years to materialize. From the outset, upgrading information systems needs to be focused on data series that will facilitate answering key policy questions, assist water users in making significant decisions more effectively, and allow businesses and government to better address risks from water-related events. As always, political support matters. To sustain investments in information, its coverage must facilitate illuminating key questions and issues. Custodians of information systems must ensure that the value proposition is clear to all. Full article

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558 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantity versus Quality in China’s South-to-North Water Diversion Project: A System Dynamics Analysis

by Yu Yang, Lei Yin and Qingzong Zhang

Water 2015, 7(5), 2142-2160; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052142 - 11 May 2015

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 9071

Abstract

The South-to-North Water Diversion (SNWD) Project has entered the operational stage. The infrastructure decreases water shortages and promotes economic growth for North China, whereas the environmental effects have yet to be fully examined. In this paper, an analysis of the interaction between water [...] Read more.

The South-to-North Water Diversion (SNWD) Project has entered the operational stage. The infrastructure decreases water shortages and promotes economic growth for North China, whereas the environmental effects have yet to be fully examined. In this paper, an analysis of the interaction between water quantity and water quality is conducted using the system dynamics method. In a specific province covering areas that provide and receive water, simulation results for economic and environmental indicators at different levels of transferred water and pollution rates are obtained. Certain conclusions can be drawn from the findings. First, the SNWD Project can provide a sufficient quantity of water for economic growth in receiving regions. Second, an efficient quantity of transferred water exists, which demonstrates the growth limitation for both agriculture and the groundwater funnel. Third, upgrades in water quality can mutually reinforce the quantity effect and greatly promote economic growth. An environmental limitation exists for all economic activities. Therefore, water quantity and water quality are equally crucial in the SNWD Project to provide an opportunity for sustainable development. Full article

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3258 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Extending the Global Sensitivity Analysis of the SimSphere model in the Context of its Future Exploitation by the Scientific Community

by George P. Petropoulos, Gareth Ireland, Hywel M. Griffiths, Marc C. Kennedy, Pavlos Ioannou-Katidis and Dionissios P. Kalivas

Water 2015, 7(5), 2101-2141; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052101 - 8 May 2015

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5879

Abstract

In today’s changing climate, the development of robust, accurate and globally applicable models is imperative for a wider understanding of Earth’s terrestrial biosphere. Moreover, an understanding of the representation, sensitivity and coherence of such models are vital for the operationalisation of any physically [...] Read more.

In today’s changing climate, the development of robust, accurate and globally applicable models is imperative for a wider understanding of Earth’s terrestrial biosphere. Moreover, an understanding of the representation, sensitivity and coherence of such models are vital for the operationalisation of any physically based model. A Global Sensitivity Analysis (GSA) was conducted on the SimSphere land biosphere model in which a meta-modelling method adopting Bayesian theory was implemented. Initially, effects of assuming uniform probability distribution functions (PDFs) for the model inputs, when examining sensitivity of key quantities simulated by SimSphere at different output times, were examined. The development of topographic model input parameters (e.g., slope, aspect, and elevation) were derived within a Geographic Information System (GIS) before implementation within the model. The effect of time of the simulation on the sensitivity of previously examined outputs was also analysed. Results showed that simulated outputs were significantly influenced by changes in topographic input parameters, fractional vegetation cover, vegetation height and surface moisture availability in agreement with previous studies. Time of model output simulation had a significant influence on the absolute values of the output variance decomposition, but it did not seem to change the relative importance of each input parameter. Sensitivity Analysis (SA) results of the newly modelled outputs allowed identification of the most responsive model inputs and interactions. Our study presents an important step forward in SimSphere verification given the increasing interest in its use both as an independent modelling and educational tool. Furthermore, this study is very timely given on-going efforts towards the development of operational products based on the synergy of SimSphere with Earth Observation (EO) data. In this context, results also provide additional support for the potential applicability of the assimilation of spatial analysis data derived from GIS and EO data into an accurate modelling framework. Full article

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1153 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synchronous Oscillations Intrinsic to Water: Applications to Cellular Time Keeping and Water Treatment

by D. James Morré and Dorothy M. Morré

Water 2015, 7(5), 2082-2100; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052082 - 7 May 2015

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 8414

Abstract

A homodimeric, growth-related and time-keeping hydroquinone oxidase (ENOX1) of the eukaryotic cell surface capable of oxidizing intracellular NADH exhibits properties of the ultradian driver of the biological 24 h circadian clock by exhibiting a complex 2 + 3 set of oscillations of copper [...] Read more.

A homodimeric, growth-related and time-keeping hydroquinone oxidase (ENOX1) of the eukaryotic cell surface capable of oxidizing intracellular NADH exhibits properties of the ultradian driver of the biological 24 h circadian clock by exhibiting a complex 2 + 3 set of oscillations of copper salts and appear to derive from periodic variations in the ratio of ortho and para nuclear spins of the paired hydrogen atoms of the elongated octahedral structure of the ENOX1 protein bound copper II hexahydrates. A corollary of these observations is that the ortho/para oscillations must occur in a highly synchronized matter. Our findings suggest that water molecules communicate with each other via very low frequency electromagnetic fields and that these fields also appear to be generated by the energetics of the synchronous ortho to para interconversions of the nuclear spin pairs of the water hydrogens. Further evidence for energy absorbed and emitted by water and correlated with ortho/para oscillations of ortho/para spin pairs of water hydrogens is indicated from the auto-oscillations in water luminescence. The emissions oscillate with period lengths of 18.8 min that agree with our previously found period of oscillation of about 18 min for pure water, reflective of ortho to para spin isomers based on measurements of redox potential. The period length of pure water (increased by about 25% in D₂O) and varies depending on the dominant cation present (copper salts in solution are unique in that the period length is exactly 24 min). Synchrony is maintained through generation of and response to LFEMF generated by the ortho-para spin pairs. Changes in redox potential sufficient to catalyze NADH oxidation were used to monitor synchronous water oscillations that appear to extend indefinitely over great distances in contiguous bodies of either still or flowing water. Adjacent out-of-phase water samples contained in thin plastic cuvettes auto-synchronize in a matter of seconds when placed side by side. Potential applications from water treatment along with opportunity related to human health are anticipated to derive from a better understanding of how water synchrony is generated and maintained, and to be aided by methodological advances in measurement and analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Treatment and Human Health)

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394 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensitivity Analysis in a Complex Marine Ecological Model

by Marcos D. Mateus and Guilherme Franz

Water 2015, 7(5), 2060-2081; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052060 - 6 May 2015

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6684

Abstract

Sensitivity analysis (SA) has long been recognized as part of best practices to assess if any particular model can be suitable to inform decisions, despite its uncertainties. SA is a commonly used approach for identifying important parameters that dominate model behavior. As such, [...] Read more.

Sensitivity analysis (SA) has long been recognized as part of best practices to assess if any particular model can be suitable to inform decisions, despite its uncertainties. SA is a commonly used approach for identifying important parameters that dominate model behavior. As such, SA address two elementary questions in the modeling exercise, namely, how sensitive is the model to changes in individual parameter values, and which parameters or associated processes have more influence on the results. In this paper we report on a local SA performed on a complex marine biogeochemical model that simulates oxygen, organic matter and nutrient cycles (N, P and Si) in the water column, and well as the dynamics of biological groups such as producers, consumers and decomposers. SA was performed using a “one at a time” parameter perturbation method, and a color-code matrix was developed for result visualization. The outcome of this study was the identification of key parameters influencing model performance, a particularly helpful insight for the subsequent calibration exercise. Also, the color-code matrix methodology proved to be effective for a clear identification of the parameters with most impact on selected variables of the model. Full article

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2050 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Upflow Evapotranspiration System for the Treatment of On-Site Wastewater Effluent

by Sean Curneen and Laurence Gill

Water 2015, 7(5), 2037-2059; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052037 - 6 May 2015

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6613

Abstract

Full-scale willow evapotranspiration systems fed from the base with septic tank or secondary treated domestic effluent from single houses have been constructed and instrumented in Ireland in order to investigate whether the technology could provide a solution to the problem of on-site effluent [...] Read more.

Full-scale willow evapotranspiration systems fed from the base with septic tank or secondary treated domestic effluent from single houses have been constructed and instrumented in Ireland in order to investigate whether the technology could provide a solution to the problem of on-site effluent disposal in areas with low permeability subsoils. Continuous monitoring of rainfall, reference evapotranspiration, effluent flows and water level in the sealed systems revealed varying evapotranspiration rates across the different seasons. No system managed to achieve zero discharge in any year remaining at maximum levels for much of the winter months, indicating some loss of water by lateral exfiltration at the surface. Water sampling and analysis however, showed that the quality of any surface overflow from the systems was similar to rainfall runoff. The performance results have then been used to formulate design guidelines for such systems in Ireland’s temperate maritime climate. The effect of varying different combinations of design parameters (plan area, soil depth, etc.) has been evaluated with respect to the simulated number of overflow days over a five-year period using a water balance model. Design guidelines have then been based upon minimising the amount of runoff, in conjunction with other practical and financial considerations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in On-Site Wastewater Treatment and Technologies to Characterize the Fate and Transport of Wastewater Constituents)

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4551 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hierarchical Classification of Groundwater Pollution Risk of Contaminated Sites Using Fuzzy Logic: A Case Study in the Basilicata Region (Italy)

by Donatella Caniani, Donata Serafina Lioi, Ignazio M. Mancini and Salvatore Masi

Water 2015, 7(5), 2013-2036; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7052013 - 30 Apr 2015

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6166

Abstract

Groundwater is an important source of water. Since the control and removal of pollution are expensive, it is essential to identify the possible sources of contamination and to correctly classify groundwater on the basis of its intrinsic and integrated vulnerability. In the last [...] Read more.

Groundwater is an important source of water. Since the control and removal of pollution are expensive, it is essential to identify the possible sources of contamination and to correctly classify groundwater on the basis of its intrinsic and integrated vulnerability. In the last years, many fuzzy models have been developed. There is a lack, however, of studies concerning the application of fuzzy logic for the assessment of the susceptibility of groundwater quality to anthropogenic activities and comparing these methods with traditional methods. The fuzzy model described in this paper assesses the aquifer integrated environmental vulnerability connected to the presence of illegal dumpsites and allows us to hierarchically classify them within a hazard scale. The results allowed us to carry out a comparison of the proposed fuzzy method with a traditional method. The fuzzy method proved to be a useful and objective tool for environmental planning. Full article

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4089 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Residence and Travel Times in a Large Floodplain Lake with Complex Lake-River Interactions: Poyang Lake (China)

by Yunliang Li, Qi Zhang and Jing Yao

Water 2015, 7(5), 1991-2012; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7051991 - 30 Apr 2015

Cited by 51 | Viewed by 7442

Abstract

Most biochemical processes and associated water quality in lakes depends on their flushing abilities. The main objective of this study was to investigate the transport time scale in a large floodplain lake, Poyang Lake (China). A 2D hydrodynamic model (MIKE 21) was combined [...] Read more.

Most biochemical processes and associated water quality in lakes depends on their flushing abilities. The main objective of this study was to investigate the transport time scale in a large floodplain lake, Poyang Lake (China). A 2D hydrodynamic model (MIKE 21) was combined with dye tracer simulations to determine residence and travel times of the lake for various water level variation periods. The results indicate that Poyang Lake exhibits strong but spatially heterogeneous residence times that vary with its highly seasonal water level dynamics. Generally, the average residence times are less than 10 days along the lake’s main flow channels due to the prevailing northward flow pattern; whereas approximately 30 days were estimated during high water level conditions in the summer. The local topographically controlled flow patterns substantially increase the residence time in some bays with high spatial values of six months to one year during all water level variation periods. Depending on changes in the water level regime, the travel times from the pollution sources to the lake outlet during the high and falling water level periods (up to 32 days) are four times greater than those under the rising and low water level periods (approximately seven days). Full article

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1291 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Stability of Revegetated Ecosystems in Sandy Areas: An Assessment and Prediction Index

by Lei Huang and Zhishan Zhang

Water 2015, 7(5), 1969-1990; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7051969 - 30 Apr 2015

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 8613

Abstract

The stability and sustainability of revegetated ecosystems is a central topic in ecological research. In this study, long-term monitoring and focused research on vegetation, soil and soil moisture from 2006 to 2012 were used to develop a model for evaluating indices of ecosystem [...] Read more.

The stability and sustainability of revegetated ecosystems is a central topic in ecological research. In this study, long-term monitoring and focused research on vegetation, soil and soil moisture from 2006 to 2012 were used to develop a model for evaluating indices of ecosystem stability using the analytical hierarchy process method. The results demonstrated that rainfall (R), vegetation coverage (C), and surface soil moisture (S) were the three most influential factors among the 14 indicators considered in a revegetated desert area in the Tengger Desert, China. A stability index (SI) was defined as SI = VAR (R) × VAR (C)/VAR (S), and a comparative study was conducted to examine the stability index of the natural vegetation community. The SI was divided into three regimes: SI < 0.006 was stable, 0.006 ≤ SI < 0.015 was semi-stable, and 0.015 ≤ SI was unstable. The stable, semi-stable and unstable periods of revegetated ecosystems in our simulations were 191, 17 and 11 years, respectively, within the total modeling period of 219 years. These results indicated that the revegetated desert ecosystem would be stable in most years during the vegetation succession, and this study presents new ideas for future artificial vegetation management in arid desert regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydro-Ecological Modeling)

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1206 KiB

Open AccessTechnical Note

Preliminary Toxicological Evaluation of the River Danube Using in Vitro Bioassays

by Clemens Kittinger, Rita Baumert, Bettina Folli, Michaela Lipp, Astrid Liebmann, Alexander Kirschner, Andreas H. Farnleitner, Andrea J. Grisold and Gernot E. Zarfel

Water 2015, 7(5), 1959-1968; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7051959 - 30 Apr 2015

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6285

Abstract

The Joint Danube Survey 3, carried out in 2013 was the world’s biggest river research expedition of its kind. The course of the second largest river of Europe passes large cities like Vienna, Budapest and Belgrade and is fed from many tributaries like [...] Read more.

The Joint Danube Survey 3, carried out in 2013 was the world’s biggest river research expedition of its kind. The course of the second largest river of Europe passes large cities like Vienna, Budapest and Belgrade and is fed from many tributaries like Inn, Thisza, Drava, Prut, Siret and Argeș. During the 6 weeks of shipping the 2375 km downstream the River Danube from Germany to the Black Sea an enormous number of water samples were analyzed and collected. A wide spectrum of scientific disciplines cooperated in analyzing the River Danube waters. For toxicological analysis, water samples were collected on the left, in the middle, and on the right side of the river at 68 JDS3 sampling points and frozen until the end of the Danube survey. All samples were analyzed with two in vitro bioassays tests (umuC and MTS). Testing umuC without S9 activation and MTS test did not show positive signals. But umuC investigations of the water samples came up with toxic signals on two stretches, when activated with S9 enzymes. The override of the limiting value of the umuC investigation with prior S9 activation started downstream Vienna (Austria) and was prolonged until Dunaföldvar (Hungary). This stretch of the River Danube passes a region that is highly industrialized, intensively used for agricultural purposes and also highly populated (Vienna, Bratislava and Budapest). The elevated values may indicate these influences. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Control and Management)

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Water, Volume 7, Issue 5 (May 2015) – 39 articles , Pages 1769-2541

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