Community Perceptions of a Payment for Ecosystem Services Project in Southwest Madagascar: A Preliminary Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Site
2.2. Data Collection
2.2.1. Collection of Socio-Economic Information
2.2.2. Documenting the Mangrove Ecosystem of the Baie des Assassins
2.2.3. Participatory Scenario Planning Workshop
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Socio-Ecological Conditions of the Baie des Assassins
3.2. Responses from the Participatory Scenario Planning Workshop
3.2.1. Sectors Perceived to Be Affected by the Project
3.2.2. Perceived Variables Affected by the Project
3.2.3. Perception of the PES Project from Different Groups
3.2.4. Perceptions of the Future without and with the PES Project
3.2.5. Potential of PES Project from the View the Participants
3.2.6. Concerns Associated with the Presence of the PES Project and the Likelihoods of Impacts
4. Discussion
4.1. Potential of PES Schemes to Manage the Mangroves of the Baie des Assassins
4.2. Solutions to Address Negative Impacts and Concerns
4.3. Strengths and Limitations of the Study
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Informed Consent Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Johnson, C.N.; Balmford, A.; Brook, B.W.; Buettel, J.C.; Galetti, M.; Guangchun, L.; Wilmshurst, J.M. Biodiversity losses and conservation responses in the Anthropocene. Science 2017, 356, 270–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Di Minin, E.; Soutullo, A.; Bartesaghi, L.; Rios, M.; Szephegy, M.N.; Moilanen, A. Integrating biodiversity, ecosystem services and socio-economic data to identify priority areas and landowners for conservation actions at the national scale. Biol. Conserv. 2017, 206, 56–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adger, W.N.; Brown, K.; Hulme, M. Redefining global environmental change. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2005, 15, 1–4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Daw, T.; Brown, K.; Rosendo, S.; Pomeroy, R. Applying the ecosystem services concept to poverty alleviation: The need to disaggregate human well-being. Environ. Conserv. 2011, 38, 370–379. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sonwa, D.J.; Nlom, J.H.; Neba, S.G. Valuation of forest carbon stocks to estimate the potential for result-based payment under REDD + in Cameroon. Int. For. Rev. 2016, 18, 119–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chazdon, R.L.; Broadbent, E.N.; Rozendaal, D.M.A.; Bongers, F.; Almeyda Zambrano, A.M.; Aide, T.M.; Balvanera, P.; Becknell, J.M.; Boukili, V.; Brancalion, P.H.S.; et al. Carbon sequestration potential of second-growth forest regeneration in the Latin American tropics. Sci. Adv. 2016, 2, e1501639. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pattanayak, S.K.; Wunder, S.; Ferraro, P.J. Show me the money: Do payments supply environmental services in developing countries? Rev. Environ. Econ. Policy. 2010, 4, 254–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sandin, S.A.; Smith, J.E.; DeMartini, E.E.; Dinsdale, E.A.; Donner, S.D.; Friedlander, A.M.; Konotchick, T.; Malay, M.; Maragos, J.E.; Obura, D.; et al. Baselines and degradation of coral reefs in the Northern Line islands. PLoS ONE 2018, 3, e1548. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Phelps, J.; Guerrero, M.C.; Dalabajan, D.A.; Young, B.; Webb, E.L. What makes a ‘REDD’ country? Glob. Environ. Chang. 2010, 20, 322–332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jindal, R.; Swallow, B.; Kerr, J. Forestry-Based carbon sequestration projects in Africa: Potential benefits and challenges. Nat. Resour. Forum 2008, 32, 116–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Noordwijk, M.; Leimona, B.; Jindal, R.; Villamor, G.B.; Vardhan, M.; Namirembe, S.; Catacutan, D.; Kerr, J.; Minang, P.A.; Tomich, T. Payments for environmental services: Evolution toward efficient and fair incentives for multifunctional landscapes. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 2012, 37, 389–420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lele, S. Watershed services of tropical forests: From hydrology to economic valuation to integrated analysis. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2009, 1, 148–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ponette-Gonzále, A.G.; Brauman, K.A.; Marín-Spiotta, E.; Farley, K.A.; Kathleen, C.W.; Young, K.R.; Curran, L.M. Managing water services in tropical regions: From land cover proxies to hydrologic fluxes. Ambio 2015, 44, 367–375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Peskett, L.; Huberman, D.; Bowen, E.; Edwards, G.; Brown, J. Making REDD Work for the Poor; Overseas Development Institute (ODI): London, UK, 2008; 80p, Available online: https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/import/downloads/making_redd_work_for_the_poor_final_draft_0110.pdf (accessed on 2 June 2021).
- Muradian, R.; Arsel, M.; Pellegrini, L.; Adaman, F.; Aguilar, B.; Agarwal, B.; Corbera, E.; de Blas, D.E.; Farley, J.; Froger, G.; et al. Payments for ecosystem services and the fatal attraction of win-win solutions. Conserv. Lett. 2013, 6, 274–279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kaplan-Hallam, M.; Bennett, N.J. Adaptive social impact management for conservation and environmental management. Conserv. Biol. 2018, 32, 304–314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Corbera, E.; González, C.; Brown, K. Institutional dimensions of payments for ecosystem services: An analysis of Mexico’s carbon forestry programme. Ecol. Econ. 2008, 68, 743–761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schröter, D.; Cramer, W.; Leemans, R.; Prentice, I.C.; Araújo, M.B.; Arnell, N.W.; Bondeau, A.; Bugmann, H.; Carter, T.R.; Gracia, C.A.; et al. Europe ecosystem service supply and vulnerability to global change in Europe. Science 2005, 310, 5752. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Folke, C. Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social-ecological systems analyses. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2016, 16, 253–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fisher, B.; Lewis, S.L.; Burgess, N.D.; Malimbwi, R.E.; Munishi, P.K.; Swetnam, R.D.; Turner, R.K.; Willcock, S.; Balmford, A. Implementation and opportunity costs of reducing deforestation and forest degradation in Tanzania. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2011, 1, 161–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fisher, J.A.; Brown, K. Reprint of ‘Ecosystem services concepts and approaches in conservation: Just a rhetorical tool?’. Ecol. Econ. 2015, 117, 261–269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Quétier, F.; Lavorel, S. Assessing ecological equivalence in biodiversity offset schemes: Key issues and solutions. Biol. Conserv. 2011, 144, 2991–2999. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sills, E.O.; De Sassi, C.; Jagger, P.; Lawlor, K.; Miteva, D.A.; Pattanayak, S.K.; Sunderlin, W.D. Building the evidence base for REDD +: Study design and methods for evaluating the impacts of conservation interventions on local. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2017, 43, 148–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Richards, M.; Panfil, S.N. Land-Based Carbon Projects: Part I—Core Guidance for Project Proponent; Forest Trends: Washington, DC, USA, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Richards, M. Social and Biodiversity Impact Assessment (SBIA) Manual for REDD + Projects; Climate, Community & Biodiversity Alliance: Washington, DC, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Pitman, N. Social and Biodiversity Impact Assessment (SBIA) Manual for REDD+ Projects: Part 3—Social Impact Assessment Toolbox; Climate, Community & Biodiversity Alliance: Washington, DC, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Merger, E.; Dutschke, M.; Verchot, L. Options for REDD+ Voluntary certification to ensure net GHG benefits, poverty alleviation, sustainable management of forests and biodiversity conservation. Forests 2011, 2, 550–577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Farley, J.; Costanza, R. Payments for ecosystem services: From local to global. Ecol. Econ. 2010, 69, 2060–2068. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brouwer, R.; Tesfaye, A.; Pauw, P. Meta-Analysis of institutional-economic factors explaining the environmental performance of payments for watershed services. Environ. Conserv. 2011, 38, 380–392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olander, L.P.; Johnston, R.J.; Tallis, H.; Kagan, J.; Maguire, L.; Polasky, S.; Urban, D.; Boyd, J.; Wainger, L.; Palmer, M. Benefit relevant indicators: Ecosystem services measures that link ecological and social outcomes. Ecol. Indic. 2018, 85, 1262–1272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Evans, W.; Velarde, K.; Prieto, S.J.; Rao, R.S.N.; Sertzen, S.; Dávila, K.; Cronkleton, P.; De Jong, W. Field Guide to the Future: Four Ways for Communities to Think Ahead; Nairobi Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR): Nairobi, Kenya, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Kok, K.; Biggs, R.; Zurek, M. Methods for developing multiscale participatory scenarios: Insights from Southern Africa and Europe. Ecol. Soc. 2017, 12, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wollenberg, E.; Edmunds, D.; Buck, L. Using scenarios to make decisions about the future: Anticipatory learning for the adaptive co-management of community forests. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2000, 47, 65–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van der Heijden, K. Scenarios: The Art of Strategic Conversation; John Wiley & Sons Ltd.: Chichester, UK, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Palomo, I.; Martín-López, B.; López-Santiago, C.; Montes, C. Participatory scenario planning for protected areas management under the ecosystem services framework: The Doñana social-ecological system in Southwestern Spain. Ecol. Soc. 2011, 16, 23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Palacios-Agundez, I.; Casado-Arzuaga, I.; Madariaga, I.; Onaindia, M. The relevance of local participatory scenario planning for ecosystem management policies in the Basque Country, northern Spain. Ecol. Soc. 2013, 18, 7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Malinga, R.; Gordon, L.J.; Lindborg, R.; Jewitt, G. Using participatory scenario planning to identify ecosystem services in changing landscapes. Ecol. Soc. 2018, 18, 10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Enfors, E.I.; Gordon, L.J.; Peterson, G.D.; Bossio, D. Making investments in dryland development work: Participatory scenario planning in the Makanya Catchment, Tanzania. Ecol. Soc. 2008, 13, 42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bizikova, L.; Pinter, L.; Tubiello, F.N. Recent Progress in Applying Participatory Scenario Development in Climate Change Adaptation in Developing Countries Part II.; International Institute for Sustainable Development: Winnipeg, MB, Canada, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Swart, R.J.; Raskin, P.; Robinson, J. The problem of the future: Sustainability science and scenario analysis. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2004, 14, 137–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gatti, G.; Bianchi, C.N.; Parravicini, V.; Rovere, A.; Peirano, A.; Montefalcone, M.; Massa, F.; Morri, C. Ecological change, sliding baselines and the importance of historical data: Lessons from combing observational and quantitative data on a temperate reef over 70 years. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0123268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kepner, W.G.; Ramsey, M.M.; Brown, E.S.; Jarchow, M.E.; Dickinson, K.J.M.; Mark, A.F. Hydrologic futures: Using scenario analysis to evaluate impacts of forecasted land use change on hydrologic services. Ecosphere 2012, 3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reed, M.S.; Evely, A.C.; Cundill, G.; Fazey, I.; Glass, J.; Laing, A. What is Social Learning? Ecol. Soc. 2010, 15, r1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Murray, B.; Pendleton, L.; Jenkins, W.; Sifleet, S. Green payments for blue carbon: Economic incentives for protecting threatened coastal habitats. Nicholas Inst. Environ. 2011, 52. Available online: https://nicholasinstitute.duke.edu/sites/default/files/publications/blue-carbon-report-paper.pdf (accessed on 2 June 2021).
- Warren-Rhodes, N.; Schwarz, K.; Boyle, A.; Albert, L.N.G.; Agalo, J.; Warren, S.S.; Bana, R.; Paul, A.; Kodosiku, C.; Bosma, R.; et al. Mangrove ecosystem services and the potential for carbon revenue programmes in Solomon Islands. Environ. Conserv. 2011, 38, 485–496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Alongi, D.M. Carbon sequestration in mangrove forests. Carbon Manag. 2012, 3, 313–322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Breithaupt, J.L.; Smoak, J.M.; Smith, T.J.; Sanders, C.J.; Hoare, A. Organic carbon burial rates in mangrove sediments: Strengthening the global budget. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 2012, 26, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Kauffman, J.B.; Bhomia, R.K. Ecosystem carbon stocks of mangroves across broad environmental gradients in West-Central Africa: Global and regional comparisons. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0187749. [Google Scholar]
- McLeod, E.; Chmura, G.L.; Bouillons, S.; Salm, R.; Bjork, M.; Duarte, C.M.; Lovelock, C.E.; Schlesinger, W.H.; Silliman, B.R. A blueprint for blue carbon: Toward an improved understanding of the role of vegetated coastal habitats in sequestering CO2. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2011, 9, 552–560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Grafton, R.Q.; Hilborn, R.; Ridgeway, L.; Squires, D.; Williams, M.; Garcia, S.; Groves, T.; Joseph, J.; Kelleher, K.; Kompas, T.; et al. Positioning fisheries in a changing world. Policy 2008, 32, 630–634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Albert, C.; Hauck, J.; Buhr, N.; von Haaren, C. What ecosystem services information do users want? Investigating interests and requirements among landscape and regional planners in Germany. Landsc. Ecol. 2014, 29, 1301–1313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Benson, L.; Glass, L.; Jones, T.G.; Ravaoarinorotsihoarana, L.; Rakotomahazo, C. Mangrove carbon stocks and ecosystem cover dynamics in southwest Madagascar and the implications for local management. Forests 2017, 8, 190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Blue Ventures. Tahiry Honko: Community Mangrove Carbon Project, Southwest Madagascar; Blue Ventures: Bristol, UK, 2014; pp. 1–72. [Google Scholar]
- Andriaharimalala, J.M.; Razafimahefa, T.; Ralainaorina, A.L.; Tafitasoa, T.N. Biodiversity Inventory of the Baie des Assassin’s Mangroves No Report; Toliara, Madagascar, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Peabody, S.; Johns, B. Development and Management Plan for the New Protected Area Velondriake Morombe, Antsimo-Andrefana Region; Blue Ventures: Bristol, UK, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Scales, I.R.; Friess, D.A. Patterns of mangrove forest disturbance and biomass removal due to small-scale harvesting in southwestern Madagascar. Wetl. Ecol. Manag. 2019, 27, 609–625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Engel, S.; Pagiola, S.; Wunder, S. Designing payments for environmental services in theory and practice: An overview of the issues. Ecol. Econ. 2008, 65, 663–674. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jacka, B.K.; Kouskya, C.; Simsa, K.R.E. Designing payments for ecosystem services: Lessons from previous experience with incentive-based mechanisms. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105, 9465–9470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Martin Persson, U.; Alpízar, F. Conditional cash transfers and payments for environmental services-A conceptual framework for explaining and judging differences in outcomes. World Dev. 2013, 43, 124–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Clements, T.G.E.J. Impact of payments for environmental services and protected areas on local livelihoods and forest conservation in northern Cambodia. Conserv. Biol. 2014, 29, 78–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fazey, I.; Salisbury, J.G.; Lindenmayer, D.B.; Maindonald, J.; Douglas, R. Can methods applied in medicine be used to summarize and disseminate conservation research? Environ. Conserv. 2004, 31, 190–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pullin, A.S.; Knight, T.M. Assessing conservation management’s evidence base: A survey of management-plan compilers in the United Kingdom and Australia. Conserv. Biol. 2005, 19, 1989–1996. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Milder, J.C.S.; Scherr, J.; Bracer, C. Research, part of a special feature on compensation and reward for environmental services in the Tropics trends and future potential of payment for ecosystem services to alleviate rural poverty in developing countries. Ecol. Soc. 2010, 15, 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ingram, J.C.; Wilkie, D.; Clements, T.; McNab, R.B.; Nelson, F.; Baur, E.H.; Sachedina, H.T.; Peterson, D.D.; Foley, C.A.H. Evidence of payments for ecosystem services as a mechanism for supporting biodiversity conservation and rural livelihoods. Ecosyst. Serv. 2014, 7, 10–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luck, G.W.; Chan, K.M.A.; Fay, J.P. Protecting ecosystem services and biodiversity in the world’s watersheds. Conserv. Lett. 2009, 2, 179–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Waylen, K.A.; Martin-Ortega, J. Surveying views on payments for ecosystem services: Implications for environmental management and research. Ecosyst. Serv. 2018, 29, 23–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pascual, U.; Phelps, J.; Garmendia, E.; Brown, K.; Corbera, E.; Martin, A.; Gomez-Baggethun, E.; Muradian, R. Social equity matters in payments for ecosystem services. Bioscience 2014, 64, 1027–1036. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lidskog, R.; Elander, I. Representation, participation or deliberation? Democratic responses to the environmental challenge. Space Polity 2007, 11, 75–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Israel, A.A. Review of ‘Scales of Justice: Reimagining Political Space in a Globalizing World’. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 2010, 100, 710–712. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Langley, J.M. Vezo knowledge: Traditional ecological knowledge in Andavadoaka, southwest Madagascar. Knowl. Creat. Diffus. Util. 2006, 44, 1–68. [Google Scholar]
- Fauzi, A.; Anna, Z. The complexity of the institution of payment for environmental services: A case study of two Indonesian PES schemes. Ecosyst. Serv. 2013, 6, 54–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ruhweza, A.; Masiga, M. Institutions for payments for environmental services; Challenges and opportunities in Uganda. In Proceedings of the 9th BIOECON Conference on “Economics and Institutions for Biodiversity Conservation, Cambridge, UK, 19–21 September 2007; p. 28. [Google Scholar]
- Greiber, T. Payments for Ecosystem Services. Legal and Institutional Frameworks; IUCN Environmental Policy and Law Paper; International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN): Gland, Switzerland, 2009; Volume 78. [Google Scholar]
- Brockhaus, M.; Di Gregorio, M.; Mardiah, S. Governing the design of national REDD +: An analysis of the power of agency. For. Policy Econ. 2014, 49, 23–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Republic of Madagascar. Law N 96-025 of September 30, 1996 Related to the Local Management of Renewable Natural Resources; Republic of Madagascar: Antananarivo, Madagascar, 1996; pp. 1–8.
- Asri, M.; Wahyuni, E.S.; Satria, A. Destructive Fishing Practices. Sodality J. Sosiol. Pedesaan 2019, 7, 25–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Teioli, H.M.; Van Der Ploeg, J.; Schwarz, A.; Sukulu, M.; Eriksson, H. Conserving womangroves: Assessing the impacts of improved cooking stoves on resource management in Langalanga lagoon, Solomon Islands. SPC Women Fish. Inf. Bull. 2011, 28, 8–14. [Google Scholar]
- Legrand, T.; Froger, G.; Le Coq, J.F. Institutional performance of payments for environmental services: An analysis of the Costa Rican program. For. Policy Econ. 2013, 37, 115–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Macura, B.; Secco, L.; Pullin, A.S. What evidence exists on the impact of governance type on the conservation effectiveness of forest protected areas? Knowledge base and evidence gaps. Environ. Evid. 2015, 4, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Lima, L.S.; Krueger, T.; García-Marquez, J. Uncertainties in demonstrating environmental benefits of payments for ecosystem services. Ecosyst. Serv. 2017, 27, 139–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Förch, W.; Kristjanson, P.; Cramer, L.; Barahona, C.; Thornton, P.K. Back to baselines: Measuring change and sharing data. Agric. Food Secur. 2014, 3, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lynam, T.; De Jong, W.; Sheil, D.; Kusumanto, T.; Evans, K. Research, part of a special feature on navigating trade-offs: Working for conservation and development outcomes. A review of tools for incorporating community knowledge, preferences, and values into decision making in natural resources management. Ecol. Soc. 2007, 12, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Attar, A.; Genus, A. Framing public engagement: A critical discourse analysis of GM Nation? Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang. 2014, 88, 241–250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wachinger, U.; Renn, G.; Wist, O.; Steinhilber, S.K.; Triemer, S.M. Using participation to create resilience: How to involve citizens in designing a hospital system? Environ. Syst. Decis. 2014, 34, 208–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Whitfield, S.; Geist, H.J.; Ioris, A.A.R. Deliberative assessment in complex socioecological systems: Recommendations for environmental assessment in drylands deliberative assessment in complex socioecological systems: Recommendations for environmental assessment in drylands. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2011, 183, 465–483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ramírez, R. Participatory learning and communication approaches for managing pluralism. Unasylva 2012, 49, 43–51. [Google Scholar]
- Huss, W.R. A move toward scenario analysis. Int. J. Forecast. 1988, 4, 377–388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gibson, R.B. Sustainability assessment: Basic components of a practical approach. Impact Assess. Proj. Apprais. 2006, 24, 170–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pahl-Wostl, C. Chapter five participation in building environmental scenarios. Dev. Integr. Environ. Assess. 2008, 2, 105–122. [Google Scholar]
- Mayring, P. Qualitative content analysis Philipp Mayring 3. Basic ideas of content analysis. Forum Qual. Sozialforsch 2000, 1, 10. [Google Scholar]
- Calvache, A.; Benitez, A.S.; Ramos, S. Water Funds: Conserving Green Infrastructure. A Guide for Design, Creation and Operation; Puntoaparte: Bogotá, Colombia, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Ruiz-Agudelo, C.A.; Zárate, M.L.; Gómez, A.M.C.; Bello, C.; Muñoz, G.T.; Gualdrón, J.E.; Riveros, C.A.; Mariño, R.; Rodríguez, O.; Rodríguez-Mahecha, J.V.; et al. Towards a Green Economy in Colombia: Design and Implementation of a Payment Scheme for Ecosystem Services (PSE) in the Framework of Territorial Planning; Conservation International: Arlington, VA, USA, 2013; Volume 3. [Google Scholar]
Sector | Attributions | Number of People Interviewed | Information Gathered |
---|---|---|---|
Local association | Resources management committee | 3 | Management of natural resources and the participation of women in the management |
Health | Community health workers | 10 | Challenges faced in providing health services (including infrastructure, human resources, and health in general) |
Health | Nurse/midwife | 2 | Challenges in providing health services (including infrastructure, human resources, and health in general) |
Education | Head of school | 10 | Challenges faced in the provision of education services (including school infrastructure and human resources) |
Public administration | Village chiefs | 10 | Existing infrastructure, and the major constraints for development in their village |
Total | 35 |
Type of Data | Source Type/Description | Reference |
---|---|---|
Ecosystem and forest type | Characteristics of mangrove vegetation and calculations of tree biomass | [54] |
Faunal diversity | Species inventory for fauna (birds, mammals, reptiles, crustaceans, and molluscs) | [56] |
Threats to mangroves and the associated biodiversity | Results of ecological monitoring and socioeconomic surveys describing the status of and threats to biodiversity in the Velondriake LMMA. Pattern of mangrove disturbance and biomass removal in the Baie des Assassins. | [57,58] |
Attribution | Group | Men | Women | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|
Village chiefs | A | 10 | 0 | 10 |
Community representatives (Elders) | A | 8 | 2 | 10 |
Resources management committees in the local association | B | 5 | 0 | 5 |
Teachers | C | 5 | 0 | 5 |
Community health workers | C | 0 | 2 | 2 |
Total | 32 |
Socioeconomic Settings | Description | Source |
---|---|---|
The majority of people practice fishing as their primary activity (58.5%), | ||
Livelihoods dependent on marine resources | while others are involved in other activities such as agriculture (15.6%), aquaculture (8.8%), retail and hospitality | Household survey 2016 |
(6%), public services (1.4%), and other domestic jobs (9.6%) which may lead to some inconsistency in job categorization | ||
Aquaculture (5.6 USD/person/day) and Fishing (1USD/day/person) are the main sources of income | ||
Low literacy rate and poor school infrastructures | The majority of the studied villages (9) only have a primary school education. Only one has a secondary and high school education. This situation results in a low literacy rate (48%) because 90.5% of the population stopped at the primary school | Census 2015 |
Poor health infrastructure and service | Only 2 basic health centrers are available in the ten villages | Field survey 2019 |
3 medical personnel work for 3698 inhabitants in the ten villages | ||
Problem of water | 53 wells recorded in the ten villages are constructed locally and 74% of them are not subjected to water sanitation | Field survey 2019 |
Weak capacity to use home sanitation | 97% of population have no sanitation facilities | Household survey 2016 |
Energy sourced from forest products | Only one village has electricity provision from a company | Field survey 2019 |
Majority of people use firewood and charcoal extracted from the forest | ||
Institution and customary rules based on tradition and beliefs | Most of the villages have male elders as heads of villages | Field survey 2019 |
DINA: rules/norms/ social conventions are used to govern society | ||
Taboo is used to limit certain use of natural resources | ||
Natural resources are managed by the local association called Velondriake | ||
Decision making structures based on tradition and beliefs | Decision making is made by the elders but often in consultation with community members | Field survey 2019 |
Mangrove ecosystems’ conditions | ||
Carbon sequestration level | Estimated to contain 454.92 (±26.58) tons of carbon per hectare | [54] |
Biodiversity | 42 animal species recorded and distributed in 7 classes: Molluscs (2), Reptiles (2), Birds (34), mammals (2), Crustacean (2), and Micro-mammals (1) | [56] |
Level of endemism | 3 species (Pterofus rufus, Vanga curvirostris, Geckolepis typica) are endemic in Madagascar | [56] |
Without Project | With Project | Causes of Changes Anticipated with the Project |
---|---|---|
Environment | ||
Greater pressures on the mangrove habitats and biodiversity (−) | Secure mangrove habitats and biodiversity (+) | Protection of intact mangroves and restoration of degraded areas |
Decrease in carbon stocks in the mangroves (−) | Increase in carbon stocks in the mangroves (+) | |
Capacity of resilience to natural hasards | ||
Vulnerable to natural disasters (−) | More resilience to natural disasters (+) | Well protected mangroves serve as barriers to protect against cyclones and erosion; money from carbon credits can be used as emergency assistance fund |
Socioeconomic | ||
Poor community infrastructure (−) | Better community infrastructure (+) | Conservation of mangroves, sale of mangrove carbon credits, building of new infrastructures, and development of new alternative livelihoods to mangroves |
Low fisheries productivity (-) | Better fisheries productivity (+) | |
Fewer livelihood options | More livelihood options (+) | |
Fewer employment opportunities (−) | More employment opportunities (+) | |
Poor education, health and clean water services (−) | Improved access to education, health and clean water services (+) | |
Less access to credit and savings (−) | More access to credit and savings (+) | |
Less touristic attraction (−) | More touristic attraction (+) | |
Business as usual (+) | Destruction of environment due toimproved living standard (−) | |
Forest management and governance | ||
Continued mangrove forest clearance (−) | Increase of forest size and protected area extent, decrease in deforestation (+) | Creation of management areas, forest restoration, creation of local regulation and management committees, and provision of awareness raising from the project developers |
Less participation in decision making (−) | More participation in decision making (+) | |
Free access to mangrove forest use (+) | Limitation of mangrove forest use (−) | |
No forest management (−) | Strong forest management (+) | |
Low understanding of mangrove importance (−) | Improved understanding of mangrove importance (+) | |
Lower knowledge of mangrove protective legislation and policy (−) | Greater knowledge of mangrove protective legislation and policy (+) | |
Institution | ||
Weak institutional capacity (−) | Strong institutional capacity (+) | Capacity building and provision of training by the project developers |
Less community cohesion (−) | More community cohesion (+) | |
Bad quality of leadership (−) | Good quality of leadership (+) | |
Culture | ||
Traditional beliefs are still practiced in the use of resources (+) | Loss of traditional beliefs in the use of resources (−) | Innovation brought by the project |
Less women participation in (meeting decision making) (−) | Increased women participation in (meeting decision making) (+) | Training and initiatives to support women’s involvement in governance |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Rakotomahazo, C.; Razanoelisoa, J.; Ranivoarivelo, N.L.; Todinanahary, G.G.B.; Ranaivoson, E.; Remanevy, M.E.; Ravaoarinorotsihoarana, L.A.; Lavitra, T. Community Perceptions of a Payment for Ecosystem Services Project in Southwest Madagascar: A Preliminary Study. Land 2021, 10, 597. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10060597
Rakotomahazo C, Razanoelisoa J, Ranivoarivelo NL, Todinanahary GGB, Ranaivoson E, Remanevy ME, Ravaoarinorotsihoarana LA, Lavitra T. Community Perceptions of a Payment for Ecosystem Services Project in Southwest Madagascar: A Preliminary Study. Land. 2021; 10(6):597. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10060597
Chicago/Turabian StyleRakotomahazo, Cicelin, Jacqueline Razanoelisoa, Nirinarisoa Lantoasinoro Ranivoarivelo, Gildas Georges Boleslas Todinanahary, Eulalie Ranaivoson, Mara Edouard Remanevy, Lalao Aigrette Ravaoarinorotsihoarana, and Thierry Lavitra. 2021. "Community Perceptions of a Payment for Ecosystem Services Project in Southwest Madagascar: A Preliminary Study" Land 10, no. 6: 597. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10060597