Magmatic-Hydrothermal Processes Associated with Rare Earth Element Enrichment in the Kangankunde Carbonatite Complex, Malawi
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Geology of the Kangankunde Carbonatite Complex
2.1. Geological Setting
2.2. Local Geology
3. Methodology
4. Results
4.1. Whole-Rock Geochemistry
4.2. Petrography
4.3. Carbon and Oxygen Isotopes
4.4. Iron Isotopes
5. Discussion
5.1. Evolution of the Carbonatites
5.2. REE Mineralization in the Magmatic Stage
5.3. Magmatic–Hydrothermal Stages Associated with REE Enrichment
5.4. Low-Temperature Hydrothermal Overprint
6. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Major Element Compositions (wt. %) | ||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Elements | Standards | Light Carbonatites | Dark Carbonatites | Apatite-Rich Carbonatites | Fenites | |||||||||||||
JB-3 | JB-1b | JGb-1 | Ka14 | Ka20 | Ka1 | Ka4 | Ka12 | Ka17 | Ka16 | Ka19 | Ka3 | Ka8 | Ka10 | Ka11 | Ka9 | Ka6 | Ka23 | |
SiO2 | 50.94 | 51.95 | 39.86 | 2.13 | 10.56 | 5.93 | 5.32 | 2.21 | 2.91 | 2.96 | 34.85 | 10.22 | 3.99 | 18.68 | 9.66 | 12.79 | 70.68 | 58.02 |
TiO2 | 1.43 | 0.77 | 0.95 | b.d | 0.14 | 0.03 | 0.05 | b.d | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.40 | 0.04 | b.d | 0.04 | 3.43 | 0.19 | 0.27 | 0.40 |
Al2O3 | 18.20 | 14.41 | 17.35 | 0.05 | 0.59 | 0.85 | 0.52 | 0.55 | 0.47 | 0.05 | 10.19 | 1.08 | 0.14 | 0.53 | 1.62 | 1.39 | 12.39 | 13.52 |
Fe2O3 | 7.47 | 9.03 | 14.28 | 6.67 | 11.61 | 28.92 | 25.61 | 23.25 | 10.60 | 16.02 | 9.99 | 19.23 | 13.75 | 16.14 | 28.38 | 21.78 | 3.90 | 10.20 |
MnO | 0.18 | 0.15 | 0.18 | 2.31 | 3.49 | 6.58 | 6.97 | 5.54 | 3.82 | 5.08 | 0.62 | 4.18 | 5.15 | 4.83 | 1.44 | 3.18 | 0.11 | 0.45 |
MgO | 5.14 | 8.28 | 7.34 | 18.09 | 16.50 | 18.40 | 6.02 | 24.29 | 20.56 | 24.15 | 8.64 | 4.05 | 13.79 | 5.82 | 12.57 | 12.19 | 0.19 | 1.57 |
CaO | 10.78 | 9.65 | 11.40 | 34.08 | 32.68 | 26.99 | 13.61 | 35.88 | 33.12 | 38.39 | 11.86 | 44.17 | 35.52 | 21.21 | 31.38 | 28.90 | 0.26 | 3.98 |
Na2O | 3.77 | 2.90 | 1.05 | 0.28 | 0.04 | 0.26 | 0.54 | 0.26 | 0.24 | 0.35 | 0.49 | 0.37 | 0.40 | 0.52 | 0.28 | 0.33 | 3.26 | 4.22 |
K2O | 0.97 | 0.51 | 3.88 | 0.00 | 0.07 | 0.35 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.18 | 0.01 | 6.24 | 0.23 | 0.01 | 0.07 | 0.10 | 0.73 | 4.66 | 6.46 |
P2O5 | 0.29 | 0.24 | 0.08 | 6.75 | 0.67 | 1.01 | 4.76 | 0.43 | 4.31 | 2.14 | 2.88 | 3.64 | 12.82 | 12.82 | 9.13 | 8.48 | 1.34 | 0.45 |
SrO | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 10.28 | 53.85 | 2.99 | 8.89 | 1.57 | 5.99 | 4.35 | 2.02 | 1.29 | 3.50 | 1.04 | 0.66 | 1.69 | 0.02 | 0.13 |
BaO | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 1.11 | 0.26 | 1.38 | 7.20 | 0.73 | 0.81 | 0.84 | 0.25 | 2.36 | 0.73 | 6.74 | 0.12 | 0.92 | 0.90 | 0.12 |
TREE | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 23.71 | 2.53 | 4.12 | 16.50 | 1.54 | 16.65 | 1.93 | 8.20 | 7.68 | 7.38 | 11.22 | 1.41 | 5.02 | 0.84 | 0.16 |
LOI | - | - | - | 33.94 | 34.91 | 32.63 | 20.96 | 38.10 | 32.43 | 38.08 | 39.87 | 29.28 | 27.21 | 14.28 | 24.41 | 16.43 | 4.85 | 6.87 |
Total | 99.22 | 97.99 | 96.53 | 94.06 | 78.89 | 97.08 | 86.61 | 96.67 | 92.90 | 96.67 | 94.36 | 95.65 | 95.45 | 97.28 | 99.39 | 95.10 | 98.54 | 99.74 |
Trace Element Concentrations (ppm) | ||||||||||||||||||
Sc | 31 | 27 | 28 | 27 | 293 | b.d | b.d | 5 | 32 | 7 | b.d | b.d | 15 | 51 | 3 | 15 | 19 | 36 |
V | 379 | 220 | 622 | 4.01 | 51.8 | 199 | 1260 | 246 | 9 | 200 | 115 | 339 | 116 | 310 | 152 | 61.6 | 124 | 114 |
Cr | 55 | 460 | 47 | 525 | 64 | 2 | 533 | 13 | 371 | 404 | 279 | b.d | 32 | b.d | 40 | 89 | 23 | 14 |
Co | 36 | 39 | 57 | 18 | 21 | 17 | 12 | 12 | 13 | b.d | 15 | 10 | 15 | 23 | 32 | 0.5 | 2 | b.d |
Ni | 36 | 143 | 18 | 235 | 276 | 140 | 300 | 110 | 161 | 195 | 128 | 146 | 109 | 115 | 84 | 116 | 11 | 15 |
Cu | 191 | 36 | 45 | 444 | 374 | 432 | 394 | 286 | 220 | 203 | 141 | 243 | 247 | 228 | 191 | 153 | 84 | 25 |
Zn | 158 | 77 | 114 | 2270 | 2060 | 3820 | 13,000 | 4920 | 2960 | 9280 | 2580 | 3880 | 7550 | 7110 | 658 | 4720 | 194 | 1190 |
Rb | b.d | 298 | 153 | 709 | 2400 | 153 | 467 | 93 | 412 | 300 | 155 | 38 | 212 | 18 | b.d | 122 | 48 | 73 |
Zr | 103 | 120 | 26 | 12,800 | b.d | 3470 | 13,300 | 1530 | 8220 | 6810 | 5180 | 2290 | 3610 | 770 | 1190 | 3060 | 215 | 18 |
Nb | 2.5 | 6 | 4 | b.d | 3560 | 318 | 25 | b.d | 259 | 188 | 4700 | 1110 | b.d | 3 | 1650 | 647 | 83 | 170 |
Pb | 6 | 5 | 2 | b.d | b.d | 9 | 1340 | 39 | b.d | 557 | 49 | 234 | 14 | 60 | 178 | b.d | 18 | 6 |
Th | 4 | 10 | 2 | 73 | 925 | 6 | b.d | b.d | 136 | b.d | 468 | 73.1 | b.d | b.d | 113 | 105 | 13 | 22 |
La | 10 | 42 | 4 | 113,000 | 12,400 | 14,000 | 45,200 | 4060 | 76,200 | 7510 | 37,700 | 29,400 | 27,400 | 32,900 | 4120 | 18,700 | 3080 | 399 |
Ce | 24 | 734 | 9 | 58,500 | 6150 | 9980 | 39,900 | 3590 | 42,500 | 4720 | 20,500 | 20,300 | 18,000 | 29,300 | 3000 | 12,500 | 589 | 417 |
Pr | 5 | 8 | 1 | 39,000 | 3930 | 8640 | 39,200 | 3560 | 28,800 | 3700 | 14,000 | 14,700 | 13,300 | 24,900 | 2730 | 10,200 | 2180 | 361 |
Nd | 18 | 27 | 6 | 19,700 | 2020 | 5540 | 27,200 | 2570 | 14,500 | 2190 | 7260 | 8770 | 8490 | 16,900 | 1870 | 6080 | 1490 | 251 |
Sm | 5 | 5 | 2 | 3600 | 423 | 1620 | 7910 | 869 | 2370 | 573 | 1370 | 1910 | 3000 | 4490 | 802 | 1490 | 456 | 83 |
Eu | 1 | 1 | 0.6 | 1320 | 167 | 677 | 2880 | 351 | 878 | 249 | 499 | 886 | 1920 | 2100 | 453 | 567 | 261 | 50 |
Gd | 5 | 5 | 2 | 1230 | 143 | 498 | 1860 | 230 | 879 | 205 | 429 | 493 | 1090 | 1030 | 404 | 418 | 146 | 32 |
Tb | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.3 | 306 | 45 | 167 | 504 | 72 | 255 | 1 | 110 | 174 | 320 | 291 | 235 | 133 | 63 | 18 |
Dy | 5 | 4 | 2 | 89 | 21 | 50 | 167 | 29 | 92 | 36 | 37 | 81 | 106 | 117 | 150 | 58 | 36 | 11 |
Y | 13 | 10 | 5 | 28 | 13 | 14 | 54 | 13 | 32 | 16 | 14 | 32 | 26 | 47 | 110 | 26 | 23 | 8 |
Ho | 1. | 1 | 0.4 | 39 | 12 | 17 | 70 | 15 | 40 | 18 | 17 | 36 | 37 | 54 | 104 | 29 | 21 | 6 |
Er | 3 | 2 | 1 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 34 | 9 | 18 | 9 | 9 | 19 | 17 | 29 | 74 | 15 | 16 | 3 |
Tm | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 11 | 6 | 5 | 17 | 7 | 9 | 4 | 4 | 12 | 12 | 19 | 57 | 9 | 15 | 4 |
Yb | 3 | 2 | 1 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 9 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 9 | 7.8 | 13 | 40 | 5 | 13 | 3 |
Lu | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 7 | 6 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 9 | 7.5 | 12 | 32 | 5 | 13 | 4 |
Element | 1 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 7 | 8 | 10 | 11 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
P2O5 | 28.45 | 27.96 | 27.88 | 28.99 | 29.08 | 28.59 | 29.04 | 27.71 |
La2O3 | 22.09 | 22.84 | 23.52 | 22.85 | 18.64 | 22.59 | 21.12 | 22.62 |
Ce2O3 | 32.19 | 30.55 | 33.68 | 31.38 | 32.79 | 30.43 | 33.08 | 33.21 |
Nd2O3 | 8.99 | 8.86 | 8.94 | 8.250 | 13.31 | 8.21 | 10.84 | 8.03 |
Sm2O3 | 0.69 | 0.71 | 0.39 | 0.45 | 1.47 | 0.48 | 0.91 | 0.41 |
Gd2O3 | 3.72 | 3.54 | 3.89 | 3.24 | 3.77 | 3.64 | 3.65 | 3.67 |
Dy2O3 | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.02 |
Ho2O3 | 0.00 | 0.11 | 0.04 | 0.18 | 0.24 | 0.00 | 0.08 | 0.08 |
Er2O3 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.15 | 0.08 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.03 |
ThO2 | 0.16 | 0.09 | 0.19 | 0.00 | 0.22 | 0.20 | 0.00 | 0.12 |
Pr2O3 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.04 |
Y2O3 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
ZrO2 | 0.38 | 0.32 | 0.09 | 0.63 | 0.04 | 0.68 | 0.16 | 0.22 |
CaO | 0.34 | 0.33 | 0.06 | 0.75 | 0.59 | 0.67 | 0.19 | 0.06 |
Total | 97.11 | 95.36 | 98.76 | 96.93 | 100.25 | 95.59 | 99.12 | 96.23 |
Carbonatite Sub-Group | Sample | δ13CVPDB (‰) | δ18OVSMOW (‰) |
---|---|---|---|
Light carbonatites | Ka20 | −3.00 | 13.61 |
Ka14 | −2.28 | 13.65 | |
Ka2 | −2.01 | 14.66 | |
Dark carbonatites | Ka1 | −0.13 | 27.32 |
Ka16 | −0.85 | 28.61 | |
Ka12 | −0.03 | 27.25 | |
Ka4 | −2.47 | 25.40 | |
Ka13 | −2.47 | 26.65 | |
Ka17 | −1.31 | 20.75 | |
Apatite-rich carbonatites | Ka9 | −0.40 | 22.43 |
Ka3 | −4.21 | 27.81 | |
Ka8 | −0.91 | 22.91 | |
Ka10 | −0.68 | 27.61 | |
Ka11 | −2.82 | 17.31 |
Carbonatite Subgroup | Sample | Main Fe bearing Mineral | Fe (wt. %) | Δ56Fe (‰) | 2σ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Light carbonatites | Ka20 | Ferroan Dolomite | 11.61 | −0.32 | 0.05 |
Ka14 | Dolomite | 6.67 | −0.27 | 0.12 | |
Ka2 | Dolomite | 3.86 | −0.38 | 0.09 | |
Dark carbonatites | Ka12 | Dolomite | 23.25 | −0.31 | 0.06 |
Ka4 | Ankerite | 25.61 | −0.33 | 0.05 | |
Ka17 | Ankerite | 10.60 | −0.32 | 0.06 | |
Ka4-2 | Ankerite | 9.86 | −0.25 | 0.05 | |
Ka3-2 | Ankerite | 7.43 | −0.28 | 0.06 | |
Apatite-rich carbonatites | Ka8 | Ferroan Dolomite | 13.75 | −0.33 | 0.07 |
Ka10 | Ferroan Dolomite | 16.14 | −0.27 | 0.14 | |
Fenites | Ka6 | Dolomite | 3.90 | −0.18 | 0.06 |
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Chikanda, F.; Otake, T.; Ohtomo, Y.; Ito, A.; Yokoyama, T.D.; Sato, T. Magmatic-Hydrothermal Processes Associated with Rare Earth Element Enrichment in the Kangankunde Carbonatite Complex, Malawi. Minerals 2019, 9, 442. https://doi.org/10.3390/min9070442
Chikanda F, Otake T, Ohtomo Y, Ito A, Yokoyama TD, Sato T. Magmatic-Hydrothermal Processes Associated with Rare Earth Element Enrichment in the Kangankunde Carbonatite Complex, Malawi. Minerals. 2019; 9(7):442. https://doi.org/10.3390/min9070442
Chicago/Turabian StyleChikanda, Frances, Tsubasa Otake, Yoko Ohtomo, Akane Ito, Takaomi D. Yokoyama, and Tsutomu Sato. 2019. "Magmatic-Hydrothermal Processes Associated with Rare Earth Element Enrichment in the Kangankunde Carbonatite Complex, Malawi" Minerals 9, no. 7: 442. https://doi.org/10.3390/min9070442