Blood-Based Biomarkers of Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s Disease: A Central Role for Periphery?
Abstract
:1. Alzheimer’s Disease and the Quest for Biomarkers
1.1. The Urgency for Diagnostic and Prognostic Biomarkers in Alzheimer’s Disease
1.2. Blood-Based Biomarkers: Interplay between the Brain and the Periphery
2. Neuroinflammation in the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s Disease
2.1. Microglia
2.2. Astrocytes
2.3. BBB Integrity and Permeability Are Compromised in AD Pathology
3. Involvement of Peripheral Immune System in the Development of Alzheimer’s Disease
3.1. Peripheral Immune Cells Come to the Rescue of Functionally Impaired Glial Cells
3.1.1. Monocytes/Macrophages
3.1.2. Lymphocytes
3.2. Systemic Inflammation Enhances CNS Susceptibility to Disease
3.2.1. Immune–Brain Axis
3.2.2. Inflammaging and Glial Priming
3.2.3. Sickness Behavior and Delirium
3.2.4. The Cholinergic Anti-Inflammatory Pathway
4. Blood-Based Biomarkers of Neuroinflammation
4.1. Cytokines as Biomarkers of Immune System Activation
4.1.1. Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines
4.1.2. Anti-Inflammatory Cytokines
4.2. Chemokines as Biomarkers for Peripheral Immune Cells Recruitment
4.2.1. Monocyte Chemotactic Protein 1 (MCP-1)
4.2.2. CXCL8/IL-8
4.2.3. CX3CL1 (Fractalkine)
4.3. YKL-40 as Biomarker for Astrocytes (and Macrophages) Activation
4.4. TREM2 as Biomarker of Phagocytic Activity
4.5. TSPO as Classic Biomarker of Neuroinflammation with a Putative Role in Peripheral Monocytes Recruitment
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Angiulli, F.; Conti, E.; Zoia, C.P.; Da Re, F.; Appollonio, I.; Ferrarese, C.; Tremolizzo, L. Blood-Based Biomarkers of Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s Disease: A Central Role for Periphery? Diagnostics 2021, 11, 1525. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics11091525
Angiulli F, Conti E, Zoia CP, Da Re F, Appollonio I, Ferrarese C, Tremolizzo L. Blood-Based Biomarkers of Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s Disease: A Central Role for Periphery? Diagnostics. 2021; 11(9):1525. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics11091525
Chicago/Turabian StyleAngiulli, Federica, Elisa Conti, Chiara Paola Zoia, Fulvio Da Re, Ildebrando Appollonio, Carlo Ferrarese, and Lucio Tremolizzo. 2021. "Blood-Based Biomarkers of Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s Disease: A Central Role for Periphery?" Diagnostics 11, no. 9: 1525. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics11091525