The Multisystem Impact of Long COVID: A Comprehensive Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. The Multisystem Impact of Long COVID
3.1. Pulmonary Involvement in Long COVID
3.2. Endocrinological Involvement in Long COVID
3.2.1. Pituitary Gland
3.2.2. Thyroid Gland
3.2.3. Pancreas
3.2.4. Adrenal Glands
3.2.5. Gonads
3.3. Hematological and Vascular Mechanism of Long COVID
3.3.1. Cell Count Alterations
3.3.2. SARS-CoV-2 Persistence in Extracellular Vesicles
3.3.3. Persistent Vascular Inflammatory State
3.3.4. Endothelial Damage and Dysfunction
3.3.5. Long-COVID-Related Hypercoagulability
3.3.6. Microangiopathy
3.4. Gastroenterological Involvement in Long COVID
3.5. Cardiovascular Involvement in Long COVID
3.6. Renal Involvement in Long COVID
3.7. Dermatological Involvement in Long COVID
3.8. Neuropsychiatric Mechanism of Long COVID
3.8.1. SARS-CoV-2 Neurotropism
3.8.2. Brain–Gut Axis—Dysbiosis
3.8.3. Long COVID Neuroinflammation
3.9. Myalgic Encephalomyelitis and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome in Long COVID-19
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Gland | Clinical Manifestation |
---|---|
Pituitary gland | Pituitary apoplexy |
Thyroid gland | Euthyroid sick syndrome Subacute thyroiditis Graves’ disease Postpartum thyroiditis Hashimoto’s disease Silent thyroiditis |
Pancreas | Acute pancreatitis Necrotizing pancreatitis Impaired glucose tolerance Insulin resistance Diabetes mellitus Severe metabolic complications (diabetic ketoacidosis) Hyperglycemia Abnormalities level of amylase/lipase |
Adrenal glands | Necrosis Hypocortisolism Cross-reactive antibodies against endogenous adrenocorticotropic hormone |
Gonads | Hypogonadism Erectile dysfunction Menstrual disturbances |
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Negrut, N.; Menegas, G.; Kampioti, S.; Bourelou, M.; Kopanyi, F.; Hassan, F.D.; Asowed, A.; Taleouine, F.Z.; Ferician, A.; Marian, P. The Multisystem Impact of Long COVID: A Comprehensive Review. Diagnostics 2024, 14, 244. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics14030244
Negrut N, Menegas G, Kampioti S, Bourelou M, Kopanyi F, Hassan FD, Asowed A, Taleouine FZ, Ferician A, Marian P. The Multisystem Impact of Long COVID: A Comprehensive Review. Diagnostics. 2024; 14(3):244. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics14030244
Chicago/Turabian StyleNegrut, Nicoleta, Georgios Menegas, Sofia Kampioti, Maria Bourelou, Francesca Kopanyi, Faiso Dahir Hassan, Anamaria Asowed, Fatima Zohra Taleouine, Anca Ferician, and Paula Marian. 2024. "The Multisystem Impact of Long COVID: A Comprehensive Review" Diagnostics 14, no. 3: 244. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics14030244