Next Article in Journal
Implications of Sublethal Insecticide Exposure and the Development of Resistance on Mosquito Physiology, Behavior, and Pathogen Transmission
Next Article in Special Issue
Air Temperature and Humidity at the Bottom of Desert Wolf Spider Burrows Are Not Affected by Surface Conditions
Previous Article in Journal
Effects of Agaricus bisporus Mushroom Extract on Honey Bees Infected with Nosema ceranae
Previous Article in Special Issue
Long-Term Population Dynamics of Namib Desert Tenebrionid Beetles Reveal Complex Relationships to Pulse-Reserve Conditions
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Insects
Volume 12
Issue 10
10.3390/insects12100916
insects-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

A Fine-Scale Hotspot at the Edge: Epigean Arthropods from the Atacama Coast (Paposo-Taltal, Antofagasta Region, Chile)

by
Jaime Pizarro-Araya
1,*,
Fermín M. Alfaro
1,2,
Andrés A. Ojanguren-Affilastro
3 and
Andrés Moreira-Muñoz
4,*
1
Laboratorio de Entomología Ecológica, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de La Serena, Casilla 554, La Serena 1700000, Chile
2
Instituto de Investigación Multidisciplinar en Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad de La Serena, Casilla 554, La Serena 1700000, Chile
3
División de Aracnología, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales “Bernardino Rivadavia” (MACN, CONICET), Avenida Ángel Gallardo 470, CABA, Buenos Aires 1405DJR, Argentina
4
Instituto de Geografía, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Avenida Brasil 2241, Valparaíso 2340000, Chile
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Insects 2021, 12(10), 916; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects12100916
Submission received: 11 August 2021 / Revised: 14 September 2021 / Accepted: 29 September 2021 / Published: 8 October 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arthropods in Desert Ecosystems)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:

Simple Summary

The identification and surveying of fine-scale or micro-hotspots of biodiversity is a crucial strategy for better driving conservation efforts at global hotspots. This seems to be especially relevant at the edges of environments suitable for life, i.e., in desert margins with high levels of endemism, such as the Atacama coast. We surveyed a 100 km section of the Atacama coast including the emblematic Paposo and Taltal sites. We studied the taxonomic composition, richness, and abundance of terrestrial arthropods and were able to identify 173 arthropod species grouped into 118 genera and 57 families. The most abundant orders were Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, and Collembola, which accounted for 90.0% of the total captured. Most abundant families were Melyridae (Coleoptera), Poduridae (Collembola), Tenebrionidae (Coleoptera), and an indeterminate family of Psocoptera. Among remarkable Coleoptera, we were able to register Ectinogonia barrigai (Buprestidae) and Luispenaia paposo (Scarabaeidae). We also documented the presence of the tenebrionid Gyriosomus angustus, and several species of the genera Nycterinus (Paranycterinus) and Scotobius. We also could find the four species of scorpions that have been described for the Paposo area recently, and an undescribed species. The relevance of the area for future prospections and as a conservation site and a fine-scale hotspot of biodiversity has been confirmed based on the epigean arthropods.

Abstract

The Atacama Desert at its margins harbors a unique biodiversity that is still very poorly known, especially in coastal fog oases spanning from Perú towards the Atacama coast. An outstanding species-rich fog oasis is the latitudinal fringe Paposo-Taltal, that is considered an iconic site of the Lomas formation. This contribution is the first to reveal the knowledge on arthropods of this emblematic coastal section. We used pitfall traps to study the taxonomic composition, richness, and abundance of terrestrial arthropods in 17 sample sites along a 100 km section of the coast between 24.5 and 25.5 southern latitude, in a variety of characteristic habitats. From a total of 9154 individuals, we were able to identify 173 arthropod species grouped into 118 genera and 57 families. The most diverse group were insects, with 146 species grouped in 97 genera and 43 families, while arachnids were represented by 27 species grouped into 21 genera and 14 families. Current conservation challenges on a global scale are driving the creation and evaluation of potential conservation sites in regions with few protected areas, such as the margins of the Atacama Desert. Better taxonomic, distributional, and population knowledge is urgently needed to perform concrete conservation actions in a biodiversity hotspot at a desert edge.

1. Introduction

Arthropods, the main component of global biodiversity, are declining in abundance and biodiversity in many regions of the world [1,2] and they are still a very unknown group. In this new geological epoch, called the Anthropocene [3], or Homogenocene [4,5], arthropods continue to be the “hidden biodiversity” not only in the tropics [6,7], but also in subtropical arid environments that have been traditionally overlooked by conservation efforts [8,9]. Similarly, there are still huge information and knowledge gaps regarding the biodiversity of arthropods in desert ecosystems (i.e., Linnean, Wallacean, and Prestonian shortfalls) [10,11].
Current conservation challenges on a global scale are driving the creation and evaluation of potential conservation sites in environments with few protected areas, such as the Atacama Desert. Recognized as the driest desert on the planet, the Atacama Desert has a biodiversity that is still poorly known, but emblematic due to its adaptation to the lack of humidity and its consequent high levels of endemism [12,13,14].
The Chilean Winter Rainfall and Valdivian Forests biodiversity hotspot is considered among the 25 global-scale conservation priority zones [15]. It encompasses a wide variety of environments, biotic communities, and species from the southern temperate forests (47° lat S), to the margin of the Atacama Desert along the coast of Antofagasta to the Mejillones Peninsula, at a latitude close to the Tropic of Capricorn (23° lat S) (Figure 1). The northern limit of this biodiversity hotspot is the margin of the Antofagasta coastal desert [15,16], which is also part of the Lomas Formation, an area extending from southern Peru to the north of La Serena city, Chile (El Tofo, 29.5° lat S) [17,18,19] (Figure 1). The Lomas Formation spans tropical and subtropical latitudes and extends into the most arid part of the Atacama Desert as a result of the stable position of the Pacific Anticyclone [19]. The formation has a conspicuous vegetation that is expressed in the so-called ‘fog oases’, which are dependent on the continuous presence of sea fogs, or camanchacas (Figure 1). These fog oases are sites located between sea level and 1000 m asl where vegetation and biotic richness is remarkably higher than on the surrounding harsh environment mainly due to a local topography (coastal cliffs) that favors the inland penetration and entrapment of these camanchacas.
These locally more humid conditions are exacerbated under the effects of the ENSO events (El Niño-Southern Oscillation) [18,20], which is also the main driver of the so-called blooming, or flowering desert, affecting plant as well as arthropod assemblages at the desert’s edge [21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28]. On the other hand, evidence also shows the effects of recent regional climate changes in these environments [29], including extreme temperature and precipitation events, such as those occurred in March 2015 and 2017, with consequent damaging streamflows [30,31].
One of the most relevant biotic sections along the Atacama coast is the Paposo-Taltal coastal site, located between 24.5° and 25.5° lat S. This site has been long recognized as a remarkable vegetational and floristic spot of the coastal margin of the Antofagasta Region [32,33,34,35] and has been recently highlighted as one of the most plant species-rich fog oases along 3000 km of the Peru-Chile coastal belt [36]. A remarkable arthropod fauna is associated to this floristic richness, including several endemic bee species, like Liphanthus jenamro Mir Sharifi, Graham and Packer [37] and Neofidelia camanchaca Dumesh and Packer [38]; two scarabs [39]; six tenebrionids [33,40,41,42,43,44]; four latridids [45]; a buprestid [46]; four spiders [47,48,49,50]; a monotypic genus of oribatid mite [51]; a freshwater amphipod [52]; three endemic scorpions [53,54].
This section of the coastal desert has been already recognized in biogeographic analyses as an outstanding area of endemism [33,55], but to date there is no systematic record of the entomofauna present in this coast, which is a major limitation for putting forward concrete conservation actions for the northern part of the Mediterranean Chilean hotspot. Although its botanical importance has been recognized for more than a century, a better understanding of the entire biota is essential for conducting more effective and concrete conservation actions. Although several studies, reports, and theses have reported on the arthropod richness and abundance in fog oases along the Peru coast [56,57,58,59,60], no systematic survey has been undertaken for the Chilean fog oases. This work aims to fill this gap by providing preliminary data about the epigean arthropod assemblage of the coastal desert at the Paposo-Taltal section (24.5°–25.5° latitude S) to help inform conservation efforts for the northern edge of the Mediterranean hotspot of biodiversity.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The Paposo-Taltal site is located around 200 km south of the city of Antofagasta, Chile (Figure 1). Ecologically, the area belongs to the formation of the Coastal Desert of Taltal, in the sub-region of the Coastal Desert and the Desert region [61].
The longitudinal coastal belt of the Atacama Desert is made up of distinct ecological, climatic, and geomorphological zones [62,63,64]. The range of habitats present in these zones and the relative stability of arid conditions since the Late Jurassic [63] have allowed the evolution of a particularly diverse biota adapted to the arid conditions and the fluctuations in humidity and dryness of this coastal desert [23]. This particular area is characterized by the presence of a series of fog oases that can be considered as fine-scale hotspots of diversity and endemism in a latitudinal gradient at the northern margin of a global biodiversity hotspot [64].
According to [65], the site vegetation is represented by the Desert Shrubland formation in the coastal plains and cliffs, and the Lower Desert Shrubland formation in the interior plains. The Desert Shrubland has three altitudinal levels of vegetation, namely, ‘Mediterranean coastal desert shrub of Gypothamnium pinifolium Phil. and Heliotropium pycnophyllum Phil.’, which extends from the sea level to 300 m asl; ‘Mediterranean coastal desert shrub of Euphorbia lactiflua Phil. and Eulychnia iquiquensis ((K. Schum.) Britton and Rose), which is heavily influenced by coastal fog and extends from 300 to 800 m asl, and ‘Mediterranean interior desert shrub of Oxyphyllum ulicinum Phil. and Gymnophyton foliosum Phil.’, which occupies the upper portion of the coastal cliffs. The Lower Desert Shrubland formation presents only the vegetation belt corresponding to ‘Matorral Bajo Desértico Tropical Interior de Nolana leptophylla (Miers) I.M. Johnst. and Cistanthe salsoloides (Barnéoud) Carolin ex Hershkovitz’ [65]. The climate in the Paposo-Taltal site corresponds to the coastal semidesert type with low thermal amplitude and abundant fogs resulting from the influence of the Humboldt Current [66] at the transition from the Mediterranean to the xeric subtropical bioclimates of northern Chile [65,67]. The presence of more abundant coastal fog than in surrounding areas, due to the particular orography of this site, provides considerable moisture for the development of the different plant formations [29,61]. At the weather station of Taltal, mean precipitation is 25 mm [65], but the annual and interannual variability is much higher, as is the moist content, dependent mainly on El Niño phenomenon [20,29].

2.2. Methods Used for Sampling Terrestrial Arthropods

The taxonomic composition (at species/family/order level) and relative abundance of the arthropod communities were determined from specimens captured using pitfall traps in 17 sample sites along ca. 100 km (Table 1, Figure 1D and Figure 2). The samplings were carried out in three campaigns: year 1 (2015) with 9 sites, year 2 (2017) with 4 sites, and year 3 (2019) with 4 sites (see Table 1). For years 1 and 3 in each of the sites, two 4 m × 5 m plots were installed, each consisting of 20 interception traps arranged in a grid, while for year 2, four interception traps were installed 50 m away from the sampling reference point at each site. Each trap consisted of two plastic cups one inside the other. The inner cup was filled up to two thirds with a mixture of water, household detergent and ethyl alcohol sensu [21,22]. The traps operated for four days (three active nights) during October 2015, August 2017, and December 2019. The collected material was processed, determined, and deposited in the entomological collection of the Ecological Entomology Laboratory of the University of La Serena (LEULS, Jaime Pizarro-Araya) and in the Arachnology Division of the “Bernardino Rivadavia” Argentine Museum of Natural Sciences, Buenos Aires, Argentina (MACN-Ar, Martín J. Ramírez).

2.3. Taxonomic Identification

The taxonomic determination was carried out using a stereomicroscope magnifying glass connected to a camera lucida. The taxa nomenclature follows the specific references listed as Supplementary Materials in Table S1. Some taxa (e.g., Araneae, Collembola, and Hymenoptera) were taxonomically identified only at the level of morphotype/family due to the poor taxonomic knowledge on these groups.

3. Results

Taxonomic Composition and Richness

A total of 9146 individuals of arthropods were collected, representing 173 species grouped into 118 genera and 57 families. Insects were the group with the highest number of taxa (146 species, 97 genera, 43 families), while arachnids were represented by 27 species grouped into 21 genera and 14 families. Eleven orders were identified, of which Coleoptera and Hymenoptera were the most diversified, with 96 and 21 species, respectively. Among arachnids, the most represented orders were Araneae and Acari, with 11 and 7 species, respectively (Table 2, Supplementary Materials Table S2).
The insect assemblage was the most abundant arthropod group, with 99.2% of the total captured. The most abundant orders were Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, and Collembola, which accounted for 90.0% of the total captured (Table 3, Figure 3). The high number of individuals registered in Hymenoptera was due to Formicidae (37.8% of the total captured), represented by species such as Brachymyrmex sp., Camponotus morosus Smith, 1858, Dorymyrmex goetschi Goetsch, 1933, Dorymyrmex pogonius Snelling, 1975, and Solenopsis gayi Spinola, 1851. Although the eusocial characteristics of Formicidae (Hymenoptera) make comparisons between desert arthropod communities difficult [68,69], we have included them in the analysis due to the scarce information on the ecological aspects of arid zones [70] and for contributing new information to the current inventory. Other abundant families were Melyridae (Coleoptera), Poduridae (Collembola), Tenebrionidae (Coleoptera), and an indeterminate family of Psocoptera (Table 3).
The richness and relative abundance of arthropods varied between the different sites under study. The sites with the highest number of species were PPSIR5 (36 species), PPSCR (32 species) and PPSIR6 (31 species). Most of the sites presented over 20 species. In terms of relative abundance, PPSIR5 presented the highest value (1320 individuals), followed by PPSIR7 (1166) and PPSIR6 (1028) (Figure 4).
Within Coleoptera, the presence and restricted distribution of Ectinogonia barrigai Moore, 2017 (Buprestidae) and Luispenaia paposo Mondaca, Pizarro-Araya and Alfaro, 2019 (Scarabaeidae) was registered; these are recently discovered species occurring in fragmented sand-dune coastal environments of the northern portion of the section. We also documented the presence of the tenebrionids Gyriosomus angustus Philippi, 1864, Nycterinus (Paranycterinus) angusticollis Philippi, 1864, Nycterinus (Paranycterinus) barriai Peña, 1971, Nycterinus (Paranycterinus) borealis Peña, 1971, Scotobius kaszabi Marcuzzi, 1976, and Scotobius tarapacensis Marcuzzi, 1976, all of them species of restricted distribution in these environments.
Up to now four species of scorpions have been described for the Paposo area, namely, Bothriurus dumayi Cekalovic, 1974; Brachistosternus barrigai Ojanguren-Affilastro and Pizarro-Araya, 2014, and Brachistosternus paposo Ojanguren-Affilastro and Pizarro-Araya, 2014, all of them from Paposo [53,71], and Brachistosternus philippii Ojanguren-Affilastro, Pizarro-Araya and Ochoa, 2018, from Paposo Norte Natural Monument [54]. Additionally, Caraboctonus keyserlingi Pocock, 1893, a widespread species from Chile, has also been collected in the area [53], and recently we discovered an undescribed species of the genus Rumikiru Ojanguren-Affilastro, Ochoa, Mattoni and Prendini, 2012. This raises to six the number of scorpion species in the community of the area, one third of them being endemic. The presence of these recently discovered species shows that the scorpions in this area were very little explored.
Some darkling beetles, like Nycterinus (Paranycterinus) angusticollis, Nycterinus (Paranycterinus) barriai, and Scotobius kaszabi, are species poorly represented in collections whose distributions are restricted to the coastal environments between Taltal and Paposo [41,72].
The remarkable diversity of scorpions in this area, compared to surrounding areas, seems to be related to the high variety of microhabitats that can be found in very close proximity, since most scorpion species are considered stenotopic. Additionally, this area represents the northernmost spot of distribution of several species that have higher humidity needs than the desert species of the area. One of these species, C. keyserlingi, extends far south into the Coquimbo and O’Higgins regions in central Chile, almost 1000 km to the south [73], and can only be found in the most humid spots of Paposo. Other species, such as B. paposo and B. dumayi, even reach the transitional coastal desert, located about 400 km to the south.
Two of the described species of the area, B. barrigai and B. philippii, are presently considered endemic to Paposo; but their actual distribution and systematic position need to be further studied. A preliminary molecular analysis of B. barrigai place it as a probable synonym of northernmost specimens of Brachistosternus kamanchaca Ojanguren-Affilastro, Mattoni and Prendini, 2007, from areas nearby the Pan de Azúcar National Park [74]; however, further, more complete molecular studies are still necessary to elucidate its actual identity. Regarding B. philippii, the limits of its distribution range are still not completely known. Up until now, it has only been collected in a narrow fringe of coastal dunes in Paposo Norte Natural Monument [54]. This species has not been found in Paposo Norte in the coast near Antofagasta, and its range is probably restricted to a stripe of coast of less than 100 km. Based on this, we consider that, most probably, this is an endemic species of the area of Paposo Norte, but more field collections are still necessary to reveal its actual distribution. Finally, in a recent collection trip, we collected for the first time a species of the genus Rumikiru in the hills of the Paposo Norte Natural Monument (Figure 1D and Figure 5A,B). This species, still undescribed, is clearly different from Rumikiru lourencoi Ojanguren-Affilastro, 2003, found in the Pan de Azúcar National Park, and also different from another new congeneric species recently collected by our group in La Chimba National Reserve. Therefore, we consider that, most probably, this is also an endemic species of this particular area.

4. Discussion

The Paposo-Taltal section in the coast of Antofagasta, at the Atacama margin, is considered as one of the most outstanding plant species-rich fog oasis along 3000 km of the Perú-Chile coast [36]. The arthropod diversity reported here (173 species grouped into 118 genera and 57 families) is proportionally higher than other surveyed fog oases. Only as a reference, reports from Quebrada Las Brujas (Peru) gave 60 genera and 51 families [58].
Directed samplings in these coastal desert environments have made it possible, on the one hand, to update the historical records of several lesser-known species and, on the other, to identify taxa with conservation problems in environments under multiple threats. Most of the surveyed sites (13 sites) were located in representative environments within the boundaries of the Paposo Priority Site, declared as a site of high interest for conservation but not yet receiving formal recognition nor any kind of effective protection. The northern portion of the area encompasses the Paposo Norte Natural Monument, which still lacks adequate signaling and ranger services (Figure 1D). The restrictions and challenges for preserving these environments and the rich biotic assemblage are evident.
Paposo has been declared a priority site for conservation for its high biodiversity of plant species. However, it lacks legal recognition as a protected wild area of the State of Chile, even though various threats to this fragile environment have been reported [75]. Assessing the degree of completeness of local richness inventories is a key task to effectively direct sampling efforts in protected natural areas.
The high abundance recorded in the studied sites was represented by species such as Arthrobrachus limbatus Solier, 1849, a melirid with a wide distribution in northern and central Chile [42,76], native ants of the genus Dorymyrmex (Formicidae), and lesser-known collembolans in the families Poduridae, Entomobryidae, and Sminthuridae. The presence of most of these species could be a result of the floristic characteristics of these environments, which host a shrubby thicket with a predominance of herbaceous and shrubby plant species. Thus, the high abundance of edaphic species, such as collembolans, could be due to their preference for humid environments [77,78], however, it is also possible that the seasonal humidity or the water supply from the coastal fogs observed in these sites [20] (Figure 1D, Figure 2) could play an important role in the biological cycles of these species.
The Paposo area is home to several species of arthropods in category of conservation: Gyriosomus angustus Philippi, 1864 (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) (EN = Endangered); Scotobius planicosta Guérin-Méneville, 1834 (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) (EN = Endangered); Conometopus penai Ronderos, 1972 (Orthoptera: Ommexechidae) (EX = Extinct); Brachistosternus philippii Ojanguren-Affilastro, Pizarro-Araya and Ochoa, 2018 (Scorpiones: Bothriuridae); Ectinogonia barrigai Moore, 2017 (Coleoptera: Buprestidae); Enodisomacris curtipennis Cigliano, 1989 (Orthoptera: Tristiridae); Luispenaia paposo Mondaca Pizarro-Araya and Alfaro, 2019 (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), and Nycterinus (Paranycterinus) angusticollis Philippi and Philippi, 1864 (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) (see Figure 5). These species have been categorized by the Chilean Ministry of Environment due to the multiple threats on their habitats [79] implicitly accepting the endangered situation of the biota of this area.
The identification and surveying of fine-scale or micro-hotspots of biodiversity is a crucial goal for better driving conservation efforts at global hotspots [80,81,82,83,84,85]. This seems to be especially relevant at the edges of the global hotspots and at the edge of habitats suitable for life, i.e., in desert margins with high levels of endemism, such as the Atacama coast. Nevertheless, for better conservation planning, several shortfalls still need to be overcome in many regions (i.e., Linnean, Wallacean, and Prestonian shortfalls). Long-term ecological and biogeographic studies for individual species and populations are desirable [86].
Lastly, the relationship between arthropod diversity and endangered host plants has been explored in other Mediterranean fine-scale hotspots [87], and several reports on this topic are available for Atacama [88]. However, much more field work on the coast is needed for disentangling those relationships, especially in El Niño years. The potential effects of climate change are already under observation in different coastal regions of Latin America [89] and hotspots worldwide [90,91], but much needs to be done especially in the field, considering that the changes in plant species composition seem to drastically affect endangered insects [92]. All these are crucial aspects that will certainly drive entomological surveying and monitoring in our current times of ecological crises.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/insects12100916/s1, Table S1: Taxonomic references for specific groups; Table S2: List of epigean arthropods from Paposo (Antofagasta Region, Chile).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.P.-A. and F.M.A., data curation, J.P.-A. and F.M.A., formal analysis, J.P.-A. and F.M.A., investigation, J.P.-A., F.M.A., A.A.O.-A. and A.M.-M., methodology, J.P.-A., F.M.A., A.A.O.-A. and A.M.-M., writing—original draft, J.P.-A., F.M.A., A.A.O.-A. and A.M.-M., writing—review and editing, J.P.-A., F.M.A., A.A.O.-A. and A.M.-M., funding acquisition, J.P.-A. and A.M.-M., project administration J.P.-A. and A.M.-M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by grants from the DIDULS PR2121210 and DIDULS PEQMEN212124 (J.P.-A.) projects of the University of La Serena, La Serena, Chile, to the funding of the Ministry of Education of Chile, through the MINEDUC performance agreement: Implementation of a competitive model of innovation and creation: preparing the University of La Serena for 2030, ULS19101 and the Integrated Forest Ecosystem Assessment and Monitoring System (SIMEF), INFOR-IEB Agreement (J.P.-A.); PIP 2015-0672 (A.O.-A.). Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo Científico y Tecnológico (Fondecyt 1180211) (A.M.-M.) supported field work and biotic collections determinations.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of Universidad de La Serena.

Data Availability Statement

Collected specimens have been deposited in the entomological collection of the Ecological Entomology Laboratory of the University of La Serena (LEULS) and in the Arachnology Division of the “Bernardino Rivadavia” Argentine Museum of Natural Sciences, Buenos Aires, Argentina (MACN-Ar, Martín J. Ramírez). All published data are available upon formal request.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Moisés Grimberg (Corporación Nacional Forestal [CONAF]) for the authorization to collect, projects: numbers 006/2014, 028/2015, and 008/2017 (CONAF-SIMEF). Thanks to all the curators of institutional and private collections for providing specimens for study. We are grateful to Juan E. Barriga, Ricardo Botero-Trujillo, and Rodrigo Muñoz, for their assistance in the field; to Alex Cea (University of La Serena) for providing botanical assistance, and to Luis Letelier (University of Talca) and Juan Huenuqueo (PUCV) for providing Geographic Information Systems (GIS) support. We also thank fundacion-indomita.org for providing photographs of species habitats.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Hallmann, C.A.; Sorg, M.; Jongejans, E.; Siepel, H.; Hofland, N.; Sumser, H.; Ho, T.; Schwan, H.; Stenmans, W.; Mu, A.; et al. More than 75 percent decline over 27 years in total flying insect biomass in protected areas. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0185809. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  2. Sánchez-Bayo, F.; Wyckhuys, K.A.G. Worldwide decline of the entomofauna: A review of its drivers. Biol. Conserv. 2019, 232, 8–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Wagner, D.L. Insect declines in the Anthropocene. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 2020, 65, 457–480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  4. Samways, M.J. Translocating fauna to foreign lands: Here comes the Homogenocene. J. Insect Conserv. 1999, 3, 65–66. [Google Scholar]
  5. Mclean, K.I.; Mushet, D.M.; Sweetman, J.N.; Anteau, M.J.; Wiltermuth, M.T. Invertebrate communities of prairie-pothole wetlands in the age of the aquatic Homogenocene. Hydrobiologia 2020, 847, 3773–3793. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Milić, D.; Radenković, S.; Ačanski, J.; Vujić, A. The importance of hidden diversity for insect conservation: A case study in hoverflies (the Merodon atratus complex, Syrphidae, Diptera). J. Insect Conserv. 2019, 23, 29–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Somavilla, A.; de Moraes Junior, R.; Oliveira, M.; Rafael, J. Biodiversity of insects in the Amazon: Survey of social wasps (Vespidae: Polistinae) in Amazon rainforest areas in Amazonas State, Brazil. Sociobiology 2020, 67, 312–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Niu, Y.; Ren, G.; Lin, G.; Di Biase, L.; Fattorini, S. Fine-scale vegetation characteristics drive insect ensemble structures in a desert ecosystem: The tenebrionid beetles (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) inhabiting the Ulan Buh Desert (Inner Mongolia, China). Insects 2020, 11, 410. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Packer, L.; Graham, L. Four new species of Isepeolini (Hymenoptera; Apidae) from northern Chile. BMC Zool. 2020, 5, 1–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Cardoso, P.; Erwin, T.L.; Borges, P.A.; New, T.R. The seven impediments in invertebrate conservation and how to overcome them. Biol. Conserv. 2011, 144, 2647–2655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  11. Brito, D. Overcoming the Linnean shortfall: Data deficiency and biological survey priorities. Basic Appl. Ecol. 2010, 11, 709–713. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Moreira-Muñoz, A. Plant Geography of Chile; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2011. [Google Scholar]
  13. Despland, E. Butterflies of the high-altitude Atacama Desert: Habitat use and conservation. Front. Genet. 2014, 5, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  14. Böhnert, T.; Weigend, M.; Merklinger, F.; Quandt, D.; Luebert, F. Historical assembly of Zygophyllaceae in the Atacama Desert. Front. Biogeogr. 2020, 12, e45197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Moreira-Muñoz, A. Central Chile Ecoregion. In Endemism in Vascular Plants; Hobohm, C., Ed.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2014; pp. 221–233. [Google Scholar]
  16. Klausmeyer, K.R.; Shaw, M.R. Climate change, habitat loss, protected areas and the climate adaptation potential of species in mediterranean ecosystems worldwide. PLoS ONE 2009, 4, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  17. Rundel, P.; Dillon, M.O.; Palma, B.; Mooney, H.; Gulmon, S.; Ehleringer, J. The phytogeography and ecology of the coastal Atacama and Peruvian deserts. Aliso 1991, 13, 1–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  18. Tovar, C.; Sánchez Infantas, E.; Texeira Roth, V. Plant community dynamics of lomas fog oasis of Central Peru after the extreme precipitation caused by the 1997–98 El Niño event. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, 1–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  19. Ruhm, J.; Böhnert, T.; Weigend, M.; Merklinger, F.F.; Stoll, A.; Quandt, D.; Luebert, F. Plant life at the dry limit—Spatial patterns of floristic diversity and composition around the hyperarid core of the Atacama Desert. PLoS ONE 2020, 15, e0233729. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. del Río, C.; Garcia, J.; Osses, P.; Zanetta, N.; Lambert, F.; Rivera, D.; Siegmund, A.; Wolf, N.; Cereceda, P.; Larraín, H.; et al. ENSO influence on coastal fog-water yield in the Atacama Desert, Chile. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2018, 18, 127–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  21. Cepeda-Pizarro, J.; Pizarro-Araya, J.; Vásquez, H. Composición y abundancia de artrópodos del Parque Nacional Llanos de Challe: Impactos del ENOS de 1997 y efectos del hábitat pedológico. Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 2005, 78, 635–650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  22. Cepeda-Pizarro, J.; Pizarro-Araya, J.; Vásquez, H. Variación en la abundancia de Arthropoda en un transecto latitudinal del desierto costero transicional de Chile, con énfasis en los tenebriónidos epígeos. Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 2005, 78, 651–663. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Muñoz-Schick, M.; Pinto, R.; Mesa, A.; Moreira-Muñoz, A. Fog oases during the El Niño Southern Oscillation 1997-1998, in the coastal hills south of Iquique, Tarapacá Region, Chile. Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 2001, 74, 1–15. [Google Scholar]
  24. Chávez, R.O.; Moreira-Muñoz, A.; Galleguillos, M.; Olea, M.; Aguayo, J.; Latín, A. GIMMS NDVI time series reveal the extent, duration, and intensity of “blooming desert” events in the hyper-arid Atacama Desert, Northern Chile. Int. J. Appl. Earth. Obs. Geoinf. 2019, 76, 193–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Holmgren, M.; Stapp, P.; Dickman, C.R.; Gracia, C.; Graham, S.; Guti, J.R. A synthesis of ENSO effects on drylands in Australia, North America and South America. Adv. Geosci. 2006, 6, 69–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  26. Block, M.; Richter, M. Impacts of heavy rainfalls in El Niño 1997/98 on the vegetation of Sechura desert in Northern Peru. Phytocoenologia 2000, 30, 491–517. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Packer, L. Penapis larraini Packer, a new species of rophitine bee (Hymenoptera: Halictidae) from a fog oasis in Northern Chile. Zootaxa 2012, 3408, 54–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Vargas, H.A.; Hundsdoerfer, A.K. Two new native larval host plants of Hyles annei (Guérin-Méneville, 1839) (Lepidoptera, Sphingidae) in the Atacama Desert of Northern Chile following exceptional summer rainfall. Nota Lepidopterol. 2019, 42, 151–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  29. Schulz, N.; Aceituno, P.; Richter, M. Phytogeographic divisions, climate change and plant dieback along the coastal desert of Northern Chile. Erdkunde 2011, 65, 169–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Barrett, B.S.; Campos, D.A.; Veloso, J.V.; Rondanelli, R. Extreme temperature and precipitation events in march 2015 in Central and Northern Chile. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 2016, 121, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  31. Bozkurt, D.; Rondanelli, R.; Garreaud, R.; Arriagada, A. Impact of warmer eastern tropical Pacific SST on the march 2015 Atacama Floods. Mon. Weather Rev. 2016, 144, 4441–4460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  32. Philippi, R.A. Viaje al Desierto de Atacama Hecho de Orden del Gobierno Chileno en el Verano de 1853–54. Halle en Sajonia: Santiago, Chile, 1860. [Google Scholar]
  33. Pizarro-Araya, J.; Jerez, V. Distribución geográfica del género Gyriosomus Guérin-Méneville, 1834 (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae): Una aproximación biogeográfica. Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 2004, 77, 491–500. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Johnston, I.M. Papers on the flora of Northern Chile. Contrib. Gray Herb. 1929, 4, 1–172. [Google Scholar]
  35. Finger, K.; Teillier, S. Contribución al Conocimiento de la flora endémica de Taltal y Paposo, Región de Antofagasta (II), Chile. Chloris Chil. 2010, 2, 1–12. [Google Scholar]
  36. Moat, J.; Orellana-Garcia, A.; Tovar, C.; Arakaki, M.; Arana, C.; Cano, A.; Faundez, L.; Gardner, M.; Hechenleitner, P.; Hepp, J.; et al. Seeing through the clouds—Mapping desert fog oasis ecosystems using 20 years of MODIS imagery over Peru and Chile. Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf. 2021, 103, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Sharifi, N.M.I.R.; Graham, L.; Packer, L. Fifteen new species of Liphanthus Reed (Hymenoptera: Andrenidae) with two bubmarginal cells. Zootaxa 2019, 4645, 1–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Dumesh, S.; Packer, L. Three new species of Neofidelia (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Megachilidae) from Northern Chile. Zootaxa 2013, 3609, 471–483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Mondaca, J.; Pizarro-Araya, J.; Alfaro, F.M. Revision of the genus Luispenaia Martínez (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Melolonthinae: Tanyproctini), with description of three new species from the Atacama Desert, Chile. Zootaxa 2019, 4615, 549–562. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Peña, L.E. Catálogo de los Tenebrionidae (Coleoptera) de Chile. Entomol. Arb. aus dem Museum Georg. Frey 1966, 17, 397–453. [Google Scholar]
  41. Peña, L.E. Revisión del género Nycterinus Eschscholtz, 1829 (Coleoptera-Tenebrionidae). Bol. Mus. Nac. Hist. Nat. 1971, 32, 129–158. [Google Scholar]
  42. Ferrú, M.A.; Elgueta, M. Lista de coleópteros (Insecta: Coleoptera) de las regiones de Arica y Parinacota y de Tarapacá, Chile. Bol. Mus. Nac. Hist. Nat. 2011, 60, 9–61. [Google Scholar]
  43. Silvestro, V.A. Revision of the chilean genus Diastoleus Solier (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), with a preliminary phylogenetic analysis of the tribe Scotobiini. Ann. Zool. 2019, 69, 113–131. [Google Scholar]
  44. Zuñiga-Reinoso, A.; Pinto, P.; Predel, R. A new species of Gyriosomus Guérin-Méneville (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) from the chilean Atacama Desert. Ann. Zool. 2019, 69, 105–112. [Google Scholar]
  45. Dajoz, R. Contribution a l’etude des coleopteres Lathridiidae du Chili. Biol. l’Amerique Australe 1967, 3, 587–609. [Google Scholar]
  46. Moore, T. Ectinogonia barrigai nov. sp.: Primera especie de bupréstido del Monumento Natural Paposo Norte, Región de Antofagasta, Chile (Coleoptera: Buprestidae). Rev. Chil. Entomol. 2017, 42, 5–10. [Google Scholar]
  47. Huber, B.A. New world pholcid spiders (Araneae: Pholcidae): A revision at generic level. Bull. Am. Museum Nat. Hist. 2000, 254, 4–348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  48. Platnick, N.I.; Shadab, M.U.; Sorkin, L.N. On the chilean spiders of the family Prodidomidae (Araneae, Gnaphosoidea) with a revision of the genus Moreno Mello-Leitão. Am. Museum Novit. 2005, 3499, 1–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Laborda, A.; Ramírez, M.J.; Pizarro-Araya, J. New species of the spider genera Aysenia and Aysenoides from Chile and Argentina: Description and phylogenetic relationships (Araneae: Anyphaenidae, Amaurobioidinae). Zootaxa 2013, 3731, 133–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Brescovit, A.D.; Sánchez-Ruiz, A. Descriptions of two new genera of the spider family Caponiidae (Arachnida, Araneae) and an update of Tisentnops and Taintnops from Brazil and Chile. Zookeys 2016, 622, 47–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  51. Covarrubias, R. Oribatides (Acarina) of Chili: Licnodamaeolus travei n. gen., n. sp. Acarologia 1998, 39, 157–164. [Google Scholar]
  52. Noodt, W. Estudios sobre crustáceos chilenos de aguas subterráneas II. nueva Ingolfiella de aguas subterráneas límnicas de Las Lomas de Paposo en el Norte de Chile. Investig. Zoológicas Chil. 1961, 7, 7–16. [Google Scholar]
  53. Ojanguren-Affilastro, A.A.; Pizarro-Araya, J. Two new scorpion species from Paposo, in the coastal desert of Taltal, Chile (Scorpiones, Bothriuridae, Brachistosternus). Zootaxa 2014, 3785, 400–418. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  54. Ojanguren-Affilastro, A.A.; Pizarro-Araya, J.; Ochoa-Cámara, J.A. Five new scorpion species of genus Brachistosternus (Scorpiones: Bothriuridae) from the deserts of Chile and Peru, with comments about some poorly studied diagnostic characters of the genus. Zootaxa 2018, 4531, 151–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  55. Jerez, V. Diversidad y patrones de distribución geográfica de insectos coleópteros en ecosistemas desérticos de la Región de Antofagasta, Chile. Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 2000, 73, 79–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Giraldo-Mendoza, A.E. Distribución de las especies de Epitragini (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) en Perú. Rev. Chil. Entomol. 2020, 46, 563–575. [Google Scholar]
  57. Giraldo-Mendoza, A.; Arellano Cruz, G. Resiliencia de la comunidad epígea de Coleoptera en Las Lomas de Lachay despueés del evento El Ninño 1997-98. Ecol. Apl. 2003, 2, 59–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  58. Fora Quispe, O. Diversidad y Distribución de la Artropofauna en la Quebrada de Las Brujas, Distrito de Sama—Tacna. Bachelor thesis, Universidad Nacional Jorge Basadre Grohmann, Tacna, Peru, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  59. Perla Gutiérrez, D. Diversidad y Distribución de la Familia Coccinellidae (Coleoptera: Cucujoidea), en un Gradiente Altitudinal, en la Cuenca del Río Cañete, Perú (2009–2010); Universidad Ricardo Palma: Lima, Peru, 2018. [Google Scholar]
  60. Aguilar, P. Fauna desértico-costera peruana—I Invertebrados más frecuentes en Las Lomas. Rev. Peru. Entomol. 1976, 19, 67–70. [Google Scholar]
  61. Gajardo, R. La Vegetación Natural de Chile. Clasificación y Distribución Geográfica; Editorial Universitaria: Santiago de Chile, Chile, 1994. [Google Scholar]
  62. Rundel, P.W.; Dillon, M.O. Ecological patterns in the Bromeliaceae of the Lomas formation of coastal Chile and Peru. Plant Syst. Evol. 1998, 212, 261–278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Hartley, A.J.; Chong, G.; Houston, J.; Mather, A.E. 150 million years of climatic stability: Evidence from the Atacama Desert, Northern Chile. J. Geol. Soc. London. 2005, 162, 421–424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Rundel, P.W.; Villagra, P.E.; Dillon, M.O.; Roig-Juñent, S.; Debandi, G. Deserts and semi-desert environments. In The Physical Geography of South America; Oxford Regional Environment Series: Oxford, UK, 2007; pp. 158–183. [Google Scholar]
  65. Luebert, F.; Pliscoff, P. Sinopsis Bioclimática y Vegetacional de Chile, 2nd ed.; Editorial Universitaria: Santiago de Chile, Chile, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  66. Juliá, C.; Montecinos, S.; Maldonado, A. Características climáticas de la Región de Atacama. In Libro Rojo de la Flora Nativa de los Sitios Prioritarios para su Conservación: Región de Atacama; Squeo, F.A., Arancio, G., Gutiérrez, J.R., Eds.; Ediciones Universidad de La Serena: La Serena, Chile, 2008; pp. 25–42. [Google Scholar]
  67. Sarricolea, P.; Herrera-Ossandon, M.; Meseguer-Ruiz, O. Climatic regionalisation of continental Chile. J. Maps 2016, 13, 66–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Flores, G.E.; Lagos, S.J.; Roig-Juñent, S. Artrópodos epígeos que viven bajo la copa del algarrobo (Prosopis flexuosa) en la Reserva Telteca (Mendoza, Argentina). Multequina 2004, 13, 71–90. [Google Scholar]
  69. Pizarro-Araya, J.; Alfaro, F.M.; Castillo, J.P.; Ojanguren-Affilastro, A.A.; Agusto, P.; Cepeda-Pizarro, J. Assemblage of arthropods in the Quebrada del Morel Private Protected Area (Atacama Region, Chile). Pan Pacific Entomol. 2012, 88, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Torres-Contreras, H. Antecedentes biológicos de hormigas presentes en Chile publicados en revistas científicas nacionales y extranjeras durante el siglo XX. Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 2001, 74, 653–668. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Ceccarelli, F.S.; Pizarro-Araya, J.; Ojanguren-Affilastro, A.A. Phylogeography and population structure of two Brachistosternus species (Scorpiones: Bothriuridae) from the chilean coastal desert—The perils of coastal living. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 2016, 120, 75–89. [Google Scholar]
  72. Marcuzzi, G. New species of Neotropical Tenebrionidae (Coleoptera). Ann. Hist. Musei Natl. Hungarici 1976, 68, 117–140. [Google Scholar]
  73. Lourenço, W.R. Considerations sur la morphologie, écologie et biogéographie de Caraboctonus keyserlingi Pocock (Scorpiones, Iuridae). Bol. Soc. Biol. Concepc. 1995, 66, 63–69. [Google Scholar]
  74. Ojanguren-Affilastro, A.A.; Mattoni, C.I.; Ochoa, J.A.; Ramírez, M.J.; Ceccarelli, F.S.; Prendini, L. Phylogeny, species delimitation and convergence in the South American bothriurid scorpion genus Brachistosternus Pocock 1893: Integrating morphology, nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2016, 94, 159–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  75. Squeo, F.A.; Cavieres, L.A.; Arancio, G.; Novoa, J.E.; Matthei, O.; Marticorena, C.; Rodríguez, R.; Arroyo, M.T.K.; Muñoz-Schick, M. Biodiversidad de la flora vascular en la Región de Antofagasta, Chile. Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 1998, 71, 571–591. [Google Scholar]
  76. Estrada, P.; Solervicens, J. Revisión taxonómica de las especies chilenas del género Arthrobrachus Solier, 1849 (Coleoptera: Melyridae). Acta Entomol. Chil. 1999, 23, 41–81. [Google Scholar]
  77. Cepeda-Pizarro, J.; Whitford, W.G. The relationships between abiotic factors and the abundance patterns of soil microarthropods on a desert watershed. Pedobiologia 1989, 33, 79–86. [Google Scholar]
  78. Cepeda-Pizarro, J.; Gutiérrez, J.R.; Valderrama, L.; Vásquez, H. Phenology of the edaphic microarthropods in a chilean coastal desert site and their response to water and nutrient amendments to the soil. Pedobiologia 1996, 40, 352–363. [Google Scholar]
  79. MMA. Clasificación Según Estado de Conservación. Available online: https://clasificacionespecies.mma.gob.cl/ (accessed on 14 September 2021).
  80. Gjerde, I.; Saetersdal, M.; Rolstad, J.; Blom, H.H.; Storaunet, K.O. Fine-scale diversity and rarity hotspots in Northern forests. Conserv. Biol. 2004, 18, 1032–1042. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Grant, P.B.C.; Samways, M.J. Micro-hotspot determination and buffer zone value for Odonata in a globally significant biosphere reserve. Biol. Conserv. 2011, 144, 772–781. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Sander, J.; Wardell-Johnson, G. Fine-scale patterns of species and phylogenetic turnover in a global biodiversity hotspot: Implications for climate change vulnerability. J. Veg. Sci. 2011, 22, 766–780. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Maceda-Veiga, A.; Baselga, A.; Sousa, R.; Vila, M.; Doadrio, I.; de Sostoa, A. Fine-scale determinants of conservation value of river reaches in a hotspot of native and non-native species diversity. Sci. Total Environ. 2017, 574, 455–466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  84. Noroozi, J.; Talebi, A.; Doostmohammadi, M.; Rumpf, S.B.; Linder, H.P.; Schneeweiss, G.M. Hotspots within a global biodiversity hotspot-areas of endemism are associated with high mountain ranges. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  85. Castuera-Oliveira, L.; Teixeira de Oliveira-Filho, A.; Eisenlohr, P. V Emerging hotspots of tree richness in Brazil. Acta Bot. Brasilica 2020, 34, 117–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Birkhofer, K.; Henschel, J.; Lubin, Y. Effects of extreme climatic events on small-scale spatial patterns: A 20-year study of the distribution of a desert spider. Oecologia 2012, 170, 651–657. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Hernández-Teixidor, D.; Santos, I.; Suárez, D.; Oromí, P. The importance of threatened host plants for arthropod diversity: The fauna associated with dendroid Euphorbia plants endemic to the Canary and Madeira archipelagos. J. Insect Conserv. 2020, 24, 867–876. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Ramírez-Fischer, F.J.; Benyamini, D.; Vargas, H.A. An endangered hemiparasitic shrub is the only host plant of the little-known Neotropical hairstreak Strymon flavaria (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) in the arid Andes. J. Insect Conserv. 2016, 20, 923–928. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. De Araujo Lira, A.; Badillo-Montaño, R.; Lira-Noriega, A.; Ribeiro de Albuquerque, C. Potential distribution patterns of scorpions in north-eastern Brazil under scenarios of future climate change. Austral Ecol. 2020, 45, 215–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  90. Bellard, C.; Leclerc, C.; Leroy, B.; Bakkenes, M.; Veloz, S.; Thuiller, W.; Courchamp, F. Vulnerability of biodiversity hotspots to global change. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 2014, 23, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Khan, A.S.; Cundill, G. Hotspots 2.0: Toward an integrated understanding of stressors and response options. Ambio 2019, 48, 639–648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  92. Baur, B.; Coray, A.; Lenzin, H.; Schmera, D. Factors contributing to the decline of an endangered flightless longhorn beetle: A 20-year study. Insect Conserv. Divers. 2020, 13, 175–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Insects 12 00916 g001 550
Figure 1. Regional context of the study area: (A) fog-oases along the Peruvian and Chilean arid coast (red dots). (B) The Mediterranean Chilean biodiversity hotspot (marked in red); Paposo-Taltal section highlighted by red arrow. (C) Camanchaca over the coastal cliffs of the study site. (D) Location of the studied sites in the coastal section North of Paposo to South of Taltal, and limits of Paposo Norte Natural Monument and Priority Site Coast of Paposo, 1 and 2 (Antofagasta Region, Chile).
Figure 1. Regional context of the study area: (A) fog-oases along the Peruvian and Chilean arid coast (red dots). (B) The Mediterranean Chilean biodiversity hotspot (marked in red); Paposo-Taltal section highlighted by red arrow. (C) Camanchaca over the coastal cliffs of the study site. (D) Location of the studied sites in the coastal section North of Paposo to South of Taltal, and limits of Paposo Norte Natural Monument and Priority Site Coast of Paposo, 1 and 2 (Antofagasta Region, Chile).
Insects 12 00916 g001
Insects 12 00916 g002 550
Figure 2. Study sites within Paposo in the Antofagasta Region, Chile: (A) Paposo Norte Natural Monument (NPNM) during 2015. (B) Paposo Priority Site (coastal dune) (PPSCD1) during 2015. (C) Paposo Priority Site (interior ravine) (PPSIR2) during 2017. (D) Paposo Priority Site (interior ravine) (PPSIR4) during 2015. (E) Paposo Priority Site (coastal dune) (PPSCD3) during 2019. (F) Paposo Priority Site (Cachinales ravine) (PPSCR) during 2019.
Figure 2. Study sites within Paposo in the Antofagasta Region, Chile: (A) Paposo Norte Natural Monument (NPNM) during 2015. (B) Paposo Priority Site (coastal dune) (PPSCD1) during 2015. (C) Paposo Priority Site (interior ravine) (PPSIR2) during 2017. (D) Paposo Priority Site (interior ravine) (PPSIR4) during 2015. (E) Paposo Priority Site (coastal dune) (PPSCD3) during 2019. (F) Paposo Priority Site (Cachinales ravine) (PPSCR) during 2019.
Insects 12 00916 g002
Insects 12 00916 g003 550
Figure 3. Relative abundance (individuals) of epigean arthropod orders registered at the Paposo-Taltal section (Antofagasta Region, Chile).
Figure 3. Relative abundance (individuals) of epigean arthropod orders registered at the Paposo-Taltal section (Antofagasta Region, Chile).
Insects 12 00916 g003
Insects 12 00916 g004 550
Figure 4. Relative abundance (individuals) and number of epigean arthropod species for each study site at Paposo-Taltal (Antofagasta Region, Chile). Codes as in Table 1.
Figure 4. Relative abundance (individuals) and number of epigean arthropod species for each study site at Paposo-Taltal (Antofagasta Region, Chile). Codes as in Table 1.
Insects 12 00916 g004
Insects 12 00916 g005 550
Figure 5. Different species of arthropods recorded in Paposo (Antofagasta Region, Chile). (A) Female of Rumikiru sp. nov. (Scorpiones: Bothriuridae) endemic of Paposo Norte Natural Monument under white light and (B) under UV light. (C) Male of Aysenia paposo Laborda, Ramírez and Pizarro-Araya (2013) (Araneae: Anyphaenidae). (D) Male of Gyriosomus angustus Philippi, 1864 (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). (E) Female of Enodisomacris curtipennis Cigliano, 1989 (Orthoptera: Tristiridae).
Figure 5. Different species of arthropods recorded in Paposo (Antofagasta Region, Chile). (A) Female of Rumikiru sp. nov. (Scorpiones: Bothriuridae) endemic of Paposo Norte Natural Monument under white light and (B) under UV light. (C) Male of Aysenia paposo Laborda, Ramírez and Pizarro-Araya (2013) (Araneae: Anyphaenidae). (D) Male of Gyriosomus angustus Philippi, 1864 (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). (E) Female of Enodisomacris curtipennis Cigliano, 1989 (Orthoptera: Tristiridae).
Insects 12 00916 g005
Table
Table 1. Habitat description and geographical location for the studied sites in Paposo (Antofagasta Region, Chile).
Table 1. Habitat description and geographical location for the studied sites in Paposo (Antofagasta Region, Chile).
N° SiteSite Code
1NPNMLatitudeLongitudeYearHabitat Description
2PPSN−24.578962°−70.552316°2019Sandy beach with open scrub of Tetragonia sp. (Aizoceae).
3PPSM−24.694903°−70.561567°2017Coastal plain (40 m asl) with scarce vegetation.
4PPSCD1−24.840082°−70.536391°2019Cliffs (70 m asl) with sandy-rocky substrate with scarce vegetation.
5PPSCR−24.851444°−70.526972°2015Coastal plain, (50 m asl), sandy substrate, open scrub of Skytanthus acutus (Apocynaceae).
6PPSCD2−24.939056°−70.490389°2015Coastal plain, alluvial cone (140 m asl), open scrub of Euphorbia lactiflua (Euphorbiaceae).
7PPSIR1−24.968222°−70.476667°2015Coastal plain with reefs (escollos) (15 m asl), low scrub of Cristaria integerrima, Tetragonia sp., and Nolana sp. (Solanaceae).
8PPSIR2−25.002861°−70.446944°2015Ravine to leeward (676 m asl), low scrub of Frankenia chilensis (Frankeniaceae) and Mesembryanthemum crystallinum (Aizoceae).
9PPSIR3−25.006307°−70.426788°2017Interior ravine (1007 m asl), open scrub of Copiapoa sp. (Cactaceae) and Heliotropium sp. (Heliotropiaceae).
10PPSIR4−25.005639°−70.447556°2015Ravine to leeward (664 m asl), open scrub of Proustia cuneifolia ssp. tipia (Asteraceae) and cacti (Eulychnia iquiquensis).
11PPSIR5−25.006528°−70.446583°2015Ravine to leeward (645 m asl), interior scrub of Ophryosporus triangularis (Asteraceae) with cacti (Eulychnia iquiquensis) and Cistanthe sp. (Montiaceae).
12PPSIR6−25.010556°−70.447583°2015Ravine to leeward (592 m asl), interior scrub of Euphorbia lactiflua with cacti (Eulychnia iquiquensis).
13PPSIR7−25.010556°−70.447194°2015Ravine to leeward (588 m asl), interior scrub of Ophryosporus triangularis with cacti (Eulychnia iquiquensis).
14PPSCD3−25.010417°−70.446111°2015Ravine to leeward (595 m asl), interior scrub of Euphorbia lactiflua with cacti (Eulychnia iquiquensis).
15PPSCR−25.055935°−70.481731°2019Coastal terrace (8 m asl) with low open scrub of Nolana crassulifolia and Bakerolimon plumosum (Plumbaginaceae).
16TR1−25.171344°−70.436829°2019Coastal plain (88 m asl) with open scrub of Heliotropium sp., Eulychnia sp. and Copiapoa sp.
17TR2−25.448125°−70.435046°2017Interior ravine (620 m asl) with open scrub of Euphorbia lactiflua, Polyachyrus sp. (Asteraceae), Nolana crassulifolia, and Eulychnia iquiquensis.
Table
Table 2. Number of taxa (family, genus, and species) and ratios between the taxonomic levels of epigean arthropods from Paposo (Antofagasta Region, Chile).
Table 2. Number of taxa (family, genus, and species) and ratios between the taxonomic levels of epigean arthropods from Paposo (Antofagasta Region, Chile).
Taxa
Class-OrderFamilyGenusSpeciesGenus/FamilySpecies/Family
Arachnida1421271.501.92
Acari2371.503.50
Araneae711111.831.83
Pseudoscorpiones1111.001.00
Scorpiones 2462.003.00
Solifugae2221.001.00
Insecta43971462.253.39
Coleoptera2662962.383.69
Collembola5881.601.60
Hymenoptera311213.677.00
Orthoptera610131.672.17
Psocoptera2462.003.00
Thysanura 1222.002.00
Note: bold—subtotals.
Table
Table 3. Richness of species and relative abundance (individuals captured) for the different families of epigean arthropods registered in Paposo (Antofagasta Region, Chile).
Table 3. Richness of species and relative abundance (individuals captured) for the different families of epigean arthropods registered in Paposo (Antofagasta Region, Chile).
OrderFamilySpeciesRelative
Abundance		Percentage
AcariCaeculidae120.02
Indeterminate6140.15
AraneaeAraneidae360.07
Thomisidae110.01
Gnaphosidae250.05
Sicariidae230.03
Theridiidae130.03
Anyphaenidae110.01
Indeterminate110.01
PseudoscorpionesCheiridiidae110.01
ScorpionesBothriuridae5230.24
Caraboctonidae150.05
SolifugaeDaesiidae110.01
Mummuciidae140.04
ColeopteraAnthicidae1350.38
Buprestidae2530.58
Carabidae 42833.09
Cerambycidae110.01
Chrysomelidae3110.12
Cleridae170.08
Corylophidae130.03
Cryptophagidae240.04
Curculionidae262052.24
Elateridae110.01
Histeridae150.05
Latridiidae5250.27
Leiodidae11011.10
Mauroniscidae150.05
Meloidae3160.17
Melyridae31.80019.68
Mordellidae150.05
Nitidulidae2100.11
Oedemeridae1260.28
Phengodidae1270.30
Ptiliidae460.07
Ptinidae340.04
Scarabaeidae220.02
Staphylinidae3620.68
Tenebrionidae225375.87
Zopheridae120.02
CollembolaEntomobryidae25105.58
Hypogastruridae190.10
Poduridae25916.46
Sminthuridae22052.24
Indeterminate1780.85
HymenopteraBradynobaenidae240.04
Formicidae133.44637.68
Mutillidae61471.61
OrthopteraAcrididae110.01
Mogoplistidae21882.06
Ommexechidae290.10
Proscopiidae110.01
Tettigoniidae5350.38
Tristiridae2200.22
PsocopteraLiposcelidae250.05
Indeterminate45355.85
ThysanuraLepismatidae2560.61
Totals571739.146100
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Pizarro-Araya, J.; Alfaro, F.M.; Ojanguren-Affilastro, A.A.; Moreira-Muñoz, A. A Fine-Scale Hotspot at the Edge: Epigean Arthropods from the Atacama Coast (Paposo-Taltal, Antofagasta Region, Chile). Insects 2021, 12, 916. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects12100916

AMA Style

Pizarro-Araya J, Alfaro FM, Ojanguren-Affilastro AA, Moreira-Muñoz A. A Fine-Scale Hotspot at the Edge: Epigean Arthropods from the Atacama Coast (Paposo-Taltal, Antofagasta Region, Chile). Insects. 2021; 12(10):916. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects12100916

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pizarro-Araya, Jaime, Fermín M. Alfaro, Andrés A. Ojanguren-Affilastro, and Andrés Moreira-Muñoz. 2021. "A Fine-Scale Hotspot at the Edge: Epigean Arthropods from the Atacama Coast (Paposo-Taltal, Antofagasta Region, Chile)" Insects 12, no. 10: 916. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects12100916

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop