Influence of Deposition Strategies on Residual Stress in Wire + Arc Additive Manufactured Titanium Ti-6Al-4V
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials and Specimens
2.2. Methods
- Cutting, for which a single flat cut is desired through the sample to relax the stress component normal to the cut surface.
- Following cutting, the cut surfaces are measured with a coordinate measuring machine (CMM).
- Data analysis is performed in which the measured contours are averaged and smoothed with a curve fitting routine.
- Finally, the reverse of the measured contour is applied as displacement boundary conditions to a 3D finite-element model of one of the cut surfaces. To avoid rigid body motion, constraints are applied to the FE model, and a linear-elastic analysis is performed to obtain the original residual stress present in the sample [32].
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Calibration of Contour Cutting Parameters
3.2. Residual Stresses in Single Bead Walls with Various Build Conditions
3.3. Residual Stresses in the WAAM Walls
3.4. Residual Stress in Small Blocks Extracted from the Oscillation Path
3.5. Residual Stresses in Compact-Tension Coupons (Single Bead, Parallel Path and Oscillation Path)
- The peak tensile residual stress was at the notch root with lower tensile stress at the back face of the sample; compressive residual stress was in the middle of the coupon. The coupon with crack growth parallel to layers showed higher tensile residual stress at the notch root than the other crack orientation. Away from the notch root, the stress values were comparable to those in the small block samples that had the same dimensions, but without the notch. Therefore, the peak stress at the notch root was caused by the notch stress concentration: i.e., residual stress redistribution after the notch cutting. The difference in stress values between the two crack orientations was also consistent with the stress value difference in the small block samples.
- C(T) coupons extracted from the oscillation path wall had the lowest tensile residual stress at the notch root.
- The unpeened single bead coupon showed higher notch root stress (150 MPa) for the orientation with crack growth parallel to the layers.
- The ILP single bead coupons showed a stress distribution along the coupon length very similar to that of the coupons extracted from the other walls. However, the stress sign at the mid-length and through the thickness was reversed completely compared to that of the unpeened coupons: i.e., low tensile residual stress was seen at the center location and comparatively high compressive residual stress was seen near the surface on both sides, a contrast to the small blocks presented in Section 3.4 that were produced without peening.
3.6. Finite Element Analysis of C(T) Coupons
4. Conclusions
- After removing the substrate plate, the oscillation path wall showed the lowest tensile residual stress (~100 MPa), and the parallel path wall showed the highest tensile residual stress (~200 MPa). Peak tensile residual stress was found near the wall bottom (where the substrate plate was) for the single bead and oscillation path walls, but the parallel path wall peak tensile stress was at both ends. Compressive residual stress was found in the mid-height of the wall for all cases.
- For the interlayer peened (ILP) single bead walls, the wall with the substrate plate showed higher tensile residual stress (~600 MPa) at the intersection of the wall and the substrate compared to when the wall was removed from the substrate. The wall with substrate also showed higher compressive residual stress (over 200 MPa) at the wall top location.
- In the unpeened condition, the single bead wall built with average interlayer temperature 110 °C resulted in much higher tensile residual stress (~500 MPa) at the wall-substrate intersection, and more compressive residual stress (over 200 MPa) at the wall mid-height, compared to the continuous built wall. Interlayer hammer peening reduced tensile residual stress by a factor of 1.5 compared to the unpeened wall (without substrate) at the average interlayer temperature 110 °C.
- In all compact-tension (C(T)) coupons, peak tensile residual stress was present at the notch root and compressive residual stress wsa present in the middle location. Away from the notch root, residual stress was very low.
- The C(T) coupons built by the oscillation method showed the lowest tensile residual stress at the notch root, ~15 to 45 MPa, while the single bead samples showed the highest tensile residual stress at the notch root, ~45 to 110 MPa. Coupons with the starter crack parallel to the build layers had higher tensile residual stress than coupons with the starter crack across the layers. C(T) coupons extracted from the interlayer peened (ILP) single bead wall showed similar residual stress as C(T) coupons extracted from three different deposition strategies without ILP, because the residual stresses retained in these small coupons were very low.
- In C(T) coupons, the measured residual stresses with the contour method agreed well with finite element analysis for both crack orientations.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Wire Diameter (mm) | Work Piece Distance (mm) | Current (A) | Wire Feed Rate (m/min) | Torch Travel Speed (mm/s) | Plasma Gas Flow (L/min) | Shielding Gas Flow (L/min) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.2 | 8 | 145 | 2.4 | 5 | 0.8 | 8 |
Tool | Impact Energy (J) | Insert Radius (mm) | Step Size (mm) | Peening Speed (mm/min) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Atlas Copco (Model RRH06P) | 6 | 10 | 4 | 150 |
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Ahmad, B.; Zhang, X.; Guo, H.; Fitzpatrick, M.E.; Neto, L.M.S.C.; Williams, S. Influence of Deposition Strategies on Residual Stress in Wire + Arc Additive Manufactured Titanium Ti-6Al-4V. Metals 2022, 12, 253. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12020253
Ahmad B, Zhang X, Guo H, Fitzpatrick ME, Neto LMSC, Williams S. Influence of Deposition Strategies on Residual Stress in Wire + Arc Additive Manufactured Titanium Ti-6Al-4V. Metals. 2022; 12(2):253. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12020253
Chicago/Turabian StyleAhmad, Bilal, Xiang Zhang, Hua Guo, Michael E. Fitzpatrick, Leonor MacHado Santos Carvalho Neto, and Stewart Williams. 2022. "Influence of Deposition Strategies on Residual Stress in Wire + Arc Additive Manufactured Titanium Ti-6Al-4V" Metals 12, no. 2: 253. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12020253
APA StyleAhmad, B., Zhang, X., Guo, H., Fitzpatrick, M. E., Neto, L. M. S. C., & Williams, S. (2022). Influence of Deposition Strategies on Residual Stress in Wire + Arc Additive Manufactured Titanium Ti-6Al-4V. Metals, 12(2), 253. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12020253