3.2. Microstructure
Typical microstructures of the Fe-0.34C steel after water quenching and tempering at 500 °C are presented in
Figure 2a,b and structural parameters are summarized in
Table 3. Microstructures after isochronal tempering at the other temperatures are not shown here since the effect of tempering temperatures ranging from 200 to 400 °C on the microstructure is insignificant. Martensite lath structure exhibiting typical three-level hierarchy in its morphology, i.e., PAGs, packets and blocks [
22,
28] evolved after quenching. Nb additions provided relatively small dimensions of PAGs exhibiting round shapes (
Table 3,
Figure 2(a,a1)). The ratio between the average dimensions of PAG and packets is
Dpacket = 0.27 ×
DPAG, the ratio between dimensions of the packet and block thickness is
dblock~0.085 ×
Dpacket, and the ratio between dimensions of PAGs and block thickness is
dblock~0.023 ×
DPAG (
Table 3). These ratios are inconsistent with ones of
Dpacket = 0.4 ×
DPAG and
dblock~0.067 ×
DPAG ensuring that the net strain in the PAG is pure dilatation in order to accommodate the lattice distortions associated with γ→α’ transformation [
28,
37,
38]. It was assumed [
28,
37] that the following relationships between PAGs, packets and blocks have to be fulfilled:
where
Np is the number of packets in a PAG,
Nb is the number of blocks in a packet. These relationships predict unrealistically high
Np and
Nb values in the Fe-0.34C steel. Therefore, the crystallography-based relationships interlinking the PAG, packet and block do not obey Equations (3) and (4) suggested in [
28]. The high elastic stress associated with
ρKAM value (
Table 3) is present in quenched structure since elastic strain energy attributed to shape changes during martensitic transformation is dictated by the number of variants in the Kurdjumov–Sachs (K–S) {111}
γ||{011}
α’ <110>
γ||<111>
α’ orientation relationship (OR) [
28,
37,
38]. The lowest strain fields in martensite lath structure are achieved if packets with four different {111}
γ planes are formed in a PAG and six variants of the K–S OR appear in a packet [
28,
37,
38].
An inspection of misorientation maps (
Figure 2(a,a2)) shows that the number of packets with lattice belonging to different {111}
γ planes is three or even less in the majority of PAGs with dimensions ≤ 20 μm. These PAGs contain one coarse packet with a round shape (
Table 3) and fine rectangular packets consisting of two or even one block. Therefore, refinement of PAGs induces long-range elastic stress fields in martensitic structure due to the lack of four possible habit {111}
γ planes in fine PAGs. Three types of packets are distinctly distinguished in the martensite lath structure. First, the PAGs with dimensions > 20 μm contain six or more packets belonging to four different habit {111}
γ planes, and these packets contain typically more than three blocks (
Figure 2(a1,a2)). It is worth noting that these coarse packets exhibiting rectangular shapes comprise six or more blocks with six K–S variants. This is typical for high-carbon steel with ≥0.61 wt.%C [
22,
39]. The second type is fine packets with irregular shapes comprising ~3 blocks with different K-S OR, and each block consists of two sub-blocks with specific K-S variants [
22,
34]. In summary, the fine packets contain six K-S OR. These packets are typical for low-to-medium carbon steels with ≤0.38 wt.%C [
39]. The invalidity of relationships (3) and (4) is attributed to the third type of packets containing two blocks or even one block. Therefore, these packets contain four or less K-S OR. In the small PAGs, a coarse packet with one {111}
γ habit plane is subdivided to separate packets by the inclination of packets belonging to the third type and characterized by the other {111}
γ habit plane (
Figure 2(a1,a2)).
The first and second types of packets are characterized by lower elastic strain energy since these packets may be composed of six K-S OR. The KAM patterns (
Figure 2(a3)) support this conclusion. Lattice distortions in these packets are relatively low (
Figure 2(a3)). Strong internal distortions are observed in packets containing less than four specific K–S variant groups (
Figure 2(a3)). Film-like RA is located along the lath boundaries, but its volume fraction is negligible (
Table 3).
Tempering affects martensite lath structure insignificantly. Changes in the dimensions of PAGs, packets, blocks and the
ρKAM values lie in accuracy limits (
Table 3). In contrast, the lath thickness tends to increase with increasing temperature of tempering up to 500 °C (
Table 3). However, the increment in lath thickness lies also within measurement accuracy (
Table 3). Tempering at 280 °C decreases lattice distortions in the coarse packets containing six blocks. After tempering at 400 °C the lattice distortions decrease in almost all packets with six specific K–S variant groups. After tempering at 500 °C the lattice distortions become small in block pairs adjacent to boundaries of PAGs and packets (
Figure 2(b1,b2)).
The size of PAGs in the Fe-0.44C steel is higher than that in the Fe-0.34C steel (
Table 3 and
Table 4,
Figure 3). Packets exhibit rectangular shapes and the number of packets with different habit {111}
γ planes is three in a major portion of PAGs (
Figure 3(a,a2)). In addition, a block with the other habit {111}
γ plane could be distinguished within these PAGs, and, therefore, four possible variants of the {111}
γ planes are present in the majority of PAGs. Three aforementioned types of packets are also observed. The feature of this steel is a high number (>6) of blocks per coarse packet (
Figure 3). Packets consisting of one block are rarely observed (
Figure 3(b2)). Therefore, the effect of Si additions and carbon content on the morphology of packets is nearly the same [
39]. It is obvious that packet morphology in the Fe-0.44C steel is typical for high-carbon steel with ≥0.61 wt.%C [
39].
The distance between HABs is ~40% larger than the block thickness and, therefore, a major portion of block boundaries exhibits high-angle misorientation [
22]. Following ratios between dimensions of structural elements of martensite lath structure were obtained:
Dpacket = 0.38 ×
DPAG, d
block~0.086 ×
Dpacket, d
block~0.02 ×
DPAG (
Table 4). Relationships (3) and (4) are fulfilled for
Np = 4 and
Nb = 11. In contrast with the Fe-0.34C steel, these
Np and
Nb values are consistent with misorientation data (
Figure 2). The Fe-0.44C steel is characterized by large lattice distortions (
Figure 3(a3)) that confirm the necessity of six K-S variants for the lowest elastic stress fields [
22,
34]. Small lattice distortions are observed in some coarse packets containing more than 5 blocks (
Figure 3(a1–a3)). The volume fraction of RA in the Fe-0.44C steel is higher by a factor of ~5 than that in the Fe-0.34C steel (
Table 2 and
Table 3). Film-like RA is dominant while the blocky-type RA with a volume fraction of ~0.7% could be also found.
Tempering leads to the decomposition of RA, lath coarsening and decreasing packet size and distance between HABs in the Fe-0.44C steel (
Table 4). An increase in the number of HABs within coarse packets (
Figure 3(b1,b2)) correlates with the decomposition of RA. Transformation of film-like RA to bainitic ferrite with transition carbides [
16,
24] produces additional HABs that decrease the average distance between HABs. A decrease in packet size is attributed to the appearance of packets containing one block within coarse packets (
Figure 3(b1,b2)). The origin of this process is not clear. After tempering at 400 and 500 °C, the lattice distortions become smaller in block pairs adjacent to boundaries of PAGs and packets (
Figure 3(b3)). In addition, areas exhibiting an almost round shape and very small lattice distortion appear in small packets containing no more than two blocks and located at the boundaries of PAGs (
Figure 3(b3)).
3.4. Mechanical Properties
The engineering stress–strain curves of the Fe-0.34C and Fe-0.44C steels after quenching and tempering are shown in
Figure 5a,b, respectively. Hardness, YS, ultimate tensile strength (UTS), uniform elongation, ductility and the product of strength and elongation (PSE) are summarized in
Table 6 for the Fe-0.34C steel and
Table 7 for the Fe-0.44C steel. Two steels exhibit continuous yielding [
3] in all conditions. After quenching the fracture occurs immediately after yielding in the Fe-0.44C steel, while the intense strain hardening provides sufficient ductility in the Fe-0.34C steel. Therefore, the Fe-0.44C steel exhibits quench embrittlement in tension [
3,
43]. Increasing the temperature of tempering decreases values of strain hardening (
Figure 5c,d). Tempering strongly increases the ductility of the Fe-0.44C steel and has little effect on the elongation to failure of the Fe-0.34C steel. Thus, the low-temperature tempering eliminates quench embrittlement in the Fe-0.44C steel. It is worth noting that steels with >0.5 wt.%C are brittle after low-temperature tempering [
3,
43] and quench embrittlement is observed after quenching, only, in the Si-enriched Fe-0.44C steel.
Tempering at T ≤ 280 °C increases the YS of two steels and UTS of the Fe-0.44C steel. In the Fe-0.34C steel, the UTS value remains unchanged up to a tempering temperature of 280 °C and tends to decrease at higher temperatures of tempering. As a result, increasing the temperature of tempering from 200 to 400 °C shifts the onset of the Considère condition [
3]:
to low strain and decreases ductility in two steels (
Figure 5c,d). The onset of the Considère criterion almost matches with UTS at these tempering temperatures and precedes necking. Uniform elongation decreases with increasing tempering temperature at T ≤ 400 °C. At a tempering temperature of 400 °C the ductility and PSE decrease due to the lowest strain of the onset of the Considère criterion. In the Fe-0.44C steel, the necking results in immediate premature fracture, while in the Fe-0.34C steel, significant plastic deformation occurs behind the Considère strain. As a result, in the Fe-0.34C steel, the ductility and PSE are nearly independent of the tempering temperature. Tempering at 500 °C increases uniform elongation, ductility and the PSE in two steels. The Considère strains after tempering at temperatures of 200 and 500 °C are nearly the same in the two steels. The main feature of the tension behavior of the Fe-0.44C steel tempered at 500 °C is an extension of the necking stage. As a result, the PSE values of the two steels after tempering at temperatures of 280 and 500 °C are essentially the same. An increase in ductility is compensated by a decrease in UTS.
CVN impact energies of the Fe-0.34C and Fe-0.44C steels are presented in
Table 6 and
Table 8, respectively. It is seen that the fracture toughness of the Fe-0.34C steel is higher than that of the Fe-0.44C steels by factors ranging from 2 to 4 for different conditions. The low fracture toughness of the Fe-0.44C steel in the as-quenched condition supports the occurrence of quench embrittlement [
3,
43]. This phenomenon manifests itself with practically zero ductility and a small CVN impact energy. In two steels, the low temperature tempering at T ≤ 280 °C provides a two-time increase in CVN impact energy. At a tempering temperature of 400 °C the well-defined TME associated with decreased CVN impact energies is observed. Therefore, TME manifests itself in decreased values of ductility, the PSE and fracture toughness. Tempering at 500 °C increases the fracture toughness of two steels, significantly. The Fe-0.34C steel after this tempering is tough, while the Fe-0.44C steel remains relatively brittle since the CVN impact energy is smaller than 28 J [
44].
Load-deflection curves are shown in
Figure 6. It is seen that all curves exhibit only the maximum load,
PM, point [
20,
29,
44,
45]. The
PM values of the Fe-0.34C steel are higher than those of the Fe-0.44C steel (
Table 8). The increase in CVN impact energy is attributed to increased
PM value. The dynamic ultimate tensile strength (DUTS),
σUTSd, can be obtained using the following relationship [
20,
29,
45]:
where
W is the specimen width (=10 mm);
B is the specimen thickness (=10 mm);
a is the notch depth (=2 mm); the constraint factor at maximum force
ηPm = 2.531 was taken for low-alloy steels [
29].
The DUTS values (
Table 8) are lower than even static YS (
Table 6 and
Table 7) for all material conditions and, therefore, the onset of crack propagation takes place before dynamic yielding through brittle mechanisms. In quenched conditions, the DUTS are smaller than YS by factors of ~2 and ~4 for the Fe-0.34C and Fe-0.44C steels, respectively. Low-temperature tempering increases DUTS and the ratio of YS/DUTS decreases. Tempering at 400 °C leads to an insignificant decrease in DUTS in the Fe-0.34C steel. DUTS is 62% of YS. In the Fe-0.44C, steel tempering at 400 °C provides a 30% decrease in DUTS and DUTS/YS-0.32. It is apparent that embrittlement takes place in the Si-enriched UHSSs if DUST is smaller than 33%YS. After tempering at 500 °C the values of DUTS and YS are nearly the same in the Fe-0.34C steel and DUTS is 72% from YS in the Fe-0.44C steel. Therefore, the Si-enriched low-alloy steel becomes tough if DUTS is equal to YS.
3.5. Fractography
Figure 7 and
Figure 8 represent the overall views of the fracture surfaces of the Fe-0.34C and Fe-0.44C steels, respectively, after tensioning. After quenching, the fracture occurs almost without necking in the two steels, which is evidence of brittle behavior [
46,
47]. Only two well-known fracture signatures, i.e., a fibrous zone associated with crack nucleation in the center of the specimens and a shear-lip zone associated with the arrest of crack propagation at specimen edges, are observed [
46,
47,
48]. The fibrous zone occupies almost 90% of the fracture surface and is characterized by quasi-cleavage fracture [
3,
46,
47,
48] in the Fe-0.34C steel (
Figure 7a). In coarse packets, the blocks play a role of effective grain size for fracture. Cleavage planes come across blocks, but at block boundaries, the transmission of cleavage occurs through its initiation along parallel {100}
α planes in an adjacent block. Cleavage propagates through block boundaries in fine packets playing the role of effective grain size for fracture. Thus, the propagation of microcracks is arrested by boundaries of two structural elements of martensite structure, i.e., block boundaries in coarse packets and boundaries of fine packets.
In the Fe-0.44C steel, the intergranular fracture is dominant in the center of the fracture surface (
Figure 7a) and crack propagation in the fibrous zone occurs through a quasi-cleavage mechanism in transgranular fracture mode (
Figure 7b) [
3,
46,
47,
48]. It is worth noting that intergranular fracture is a specific feature of quench embrittlement [
3,
43] and, therefore, this phenomenon is responsible for lacking ductility of the Fe-0.44C steel in the as-quenched condition. It is worth noting that high stress (
Table 7) is necessary to initiate intergranular fracture mode. Premature crack nucleation at boundaries restricts the ductility of the Fe-0.44C steel in the quenched condition. This steel exhibits no necking.
A dimple fracture is observed in the shear-lip zone (not shown here). Tempering at 200 °C leads to necking and expanding the shear-lip zone of ductile fracture up to ~50% of the fracture surface in two steels. Mixture quasi-cleavage–dimple fracture mode is observed; block boundaries play the role of effective obstacles for stopping cleavage in the fibrous zone (
Figure 7b). In the fibrous zone, the portion of ductile fracture in the Fe-0.44C steel is lower than in the Fe-0.34C steel (
Figure 8b). A radial fracture zone [
46,
47,
48] appears and dimple fracture becomes the main fracture mechanism in the fibrous zone in the Fe-0.34C steel. The ductile fracture mechanism plays an important role in the Fe-0.44C steel after tempering at 280 °C (
Figure 7c and
Figure 8c). Shallow dimples are observed in the radial fracture zone (
Figure 8d).
Tempering at 400 °C decreases the contribution of dimple fracture in the fibrous zone; PAGs and coarse packets play a role of effective grain size for cleavage fracture (
Figure 7e). Therefore, tempering at this temperature diminishes the role of block boundaries as stoppers for cleavage propagation. The intergranular fracture appears in the fibrous zone of the Fe-0.44C steel. In the Fe-0.34C steel, the role of this fracture mechanism is minor (
Figure 7e). This steel exhibits necking, while almost no localization of plastic deformation was found in the Fe-0.44C steel. Crack nucleation and propagation take place without any necking in the Fe-0.44C steel. Therefore, the low ductility of the Fe-0.44C steel is attributed to the fact that PAGs and coarse packets play a role of effective grain size for fracture in the fibrous zone occupying ~60% of fracture surface and this induces crack nucleation under stable plastic flow. In contrast, the Fe-0.34C steel is susceptible to necking, and elongation to failure of this material is 150% higher than that of the Fe-0.44C steel despite the fact that uniform elongations of two steels are essentially the same (
Table 6 and
Table 7). After tempering at 500 °C the transgranular dimple fracture is dominant in the Fe-0.34C steel (
Figure 7f), while intergranular fracture and quasi-cleavage transgranular fracture with blocks as an effective grain size are observed in the Fe-0.44C steel in the fibrous zone (
Figure 8f).
The fracture surface of CVN specimens consists of initiation zone (IZ), fast crack propagation/fibrous zone (FCPZ) and shear-lip zone (SLZ) (
Figure 9) [
6,
44,
47,
49]. The effect of tempering temperature on area fractions of these zones is summarized in
Table 9 and the fractographs of the V-notch Charpy specimens after impact tests are presented in
Figure 10 and
Figure 11. The dimple fracture is observed in the IZ (not shown here) and ductile crack growth under plain strain conditions takes place in SLZ. Quasi-cleavage fracture takes place in the FCPZ in the Fe-0.34C in the as-quenched condition (
Figure 10(a1,a2)). Packets and blocks play a role of effective grain size in the FCPZ. In the Fe-0.44C steel the propagation of microcracks stops at block boundaries in the IZ (
Figure 11(a1–a3)). Packets play a role of an effective grain size for fracture in the FCPZ and shallow dimples are observed in the SLZ. Intergranular fracture along the boundaries of some PAGs is rarely observed. In areas of FCPZ adjacent to the SLZ the cleavage occurs within blocks in addition to whole packets. Therefore, increasing stress promotes the propagation of cleavage through block boundaries and quench embrittlement manifests itself through transgranular fracture with low fracture stress in the Fe-0.44C steel.
Tempering at 200 °C increases the area fraction of the SLZ and contribution of dimple fracture in two steels (
Figure 10(b1,b2) and
Figure 11(b1–b3)). In the Fe-0.34C steel, the packets play a role of effective grain size for fracture in the FCPZ. Dimples are observed on tear ridges. In the Fe-0.44C steel, the cleavage occurs through whole packets in the FCPZ. The area fraction of dimple fracture tends to increase with the transition from the FCPZ to the SLZ. Blocks in coarse packets and fine packets play a role in the effective grain size for cleavage fracture in the FCPZ of the Fe-0.34C steel after tempering at 280 °C (
Figure 10(c1)). The total area of the ductile fracture is high; a full dimple fracture takes place in the SLZ (
Figure 10(c2)). Dimple fracture is observed in the IZ and SLZ in the Fe-0.44C steel (
Figure 11(c1,c3)). Quasi-cleavage fracture with dense tear ridges is observed in the FCPZ (
Figure 11(c2)).
Packet boundaries arrest the cleavage propagation in the FCPZ after tempering at 400 °C in the Fe-0.34C steel (
Figure 10(d1)). Coherence length for cleavage fracture is restricted by block boundaries occasionally. Area fractions of the IZ and SLZ decrease (
Table 9), but dimple fracture remains in these zones in two steels (
Figure 10(d2) and
Figure 11(d1,d3)). In the Fe-0.44 the transition to intergranular brittle fracture along boundaries of PAGs occurs in the FCPZ (
Figure 11(d2)). The amount of intergranular fracture increases with increasing carbon content. However, transgranular quasi-cleavage fracture remains dominant in this zone and a few intergranular facets are observed only. Tempering at 500 °C leads to decohesion along carbide/ferrite interfaces [
46] in the IZ and SLZ in the Fe-0.34 steel (
Figure 10(e2)), while dimple fracture could be also observed in these zones. In the FCPZ the transgranular quasi-cleavage fracture with PAGs as the effective grain size is in dominance, while cleavage within separate packets and even blocks could be rarely observed (
Figure 10(e1)). Intergranular fracture plays a minor role in this zone in two steels. In the Fe-0.44C steel, the fine PAGs and packets in coarse PAGs play a role in the effective grain size for fracture in the FCPZ (
Figure 11(e2)). Decohesion along carbide/ferrite interfaces is the main fracture mechanism in the IZ and SLZ (
Figure 11(e1,e3)).