Review of In Situ Detection and Ex Situ Characterization of Porosity in Laser Powder Bed Fusion Metal Additive Manufacturing
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Porosity/Defect Detection
2.1. In Situ Porosity Measurement
2.1.1. Optical-Based Techniques
2.1.2. Temperature-Based Techniques
2.1.3. Acoustic-Based Techniques
2.1.4. Synchrotron X-ray Imaging
2.1.5. Multi-Sensor-Based Techniques
2.2. Ex Situ Porosity Measurement
3. Summary
4. Outlook
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Detectable Minimum Size | Advantages | Limitations | |
---|---|---|---|
Optical methods | >200 µ |
|
|
Pyrometer (thermal) | Keyhole size |
|
|
Acoustic methods (airborne) | Keyhole size |
|
|
Synchrotron X-ray imaging | As low as the resolution of the machine |
|
|
Detectable Minimum Size | Advantages | Limitations | |
---|---|---|---|
Optical and SEM | As low as the resolution achievable with microscopy. | Can provide a detailed characterization of the defect. |
|
Archimedes | - |
| Only gives overall density and the sum of concealed voids |
Laser Ultrasound | 100 micron above |
| Currently limited to simple geometries |
X-ray | As low as the resolution of the machine. |
|
|
In situ Monitoring Techniques | Observable Defect Types | Pore Size Range (µm) | Ex situ | Sensor | ML | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Optical methods | LOF | >200 | XCT | DSLR | CNN | [76,77] |
- | - | XCT | Photodiode | - | [69] | |
- | - | XCT | DSLR | - | [73] | |
LOF | >250 | SEM | DIC | - | [74] | |
- | - | - | Spectroscopy | - | [75] | |
Pyrometer (thermal) | - | - | XCT | Pyrometer | - | [52] |
LOF | - | XCT | Pyrometer | KNN | [80] | |
LOF | - | SEM | LWIR | - | [87] | |
- | - | XCT | SWIR | - | [81] | |
Planted | >100 | XCT | Photodiodes | - | [82] | |
Irregularities | - | Optical | IR | - | [88] | |
- | - | Optical | Pyrometer | SeDANN | [89] | |
Irregularities | - | Optical | IR | - | [90] | |
Planted | >120 | XCT | Pyrometer | - | [91] | |
Keyhole | - | XCT | HS Camera | SVM + MLP | [92] | |
Acoustic methods | Keyhole | - | XCT | Microphone | SVM | [98] |
Synchrotron X-ray imaging | Keyhole | 10–60 | XCT | HS X-Ray | - | [99] |
LOF | - | - | X-Ray | - | [54] | |
Keyhole | - | - | HS X-Ray | - | [100] | |
Spatter | - | - | CT–OT | - | [102] | |
Multi-sensor methods | Keyhole | - | - | HS X-ray + IR | - | [103] |
LOF | - | XCT | NIR + MWIR | - | [49] |
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Aydogan, B.; Chou, K. Review of In Situ Detection and Ex Situ Characterization of Porosity in Laser Powder Bed Fusion Metal Additive Manufacturing. Metals 2024, 14, 669. https://doi.org/10.3390/met14060669
Aydogan B, Chou K. Review of In Situ Detection and Ex Situ Characterization of Porosity in Laser Powder Bed Fusion Metal Additive Manufacturing. Metals. 2024; 14(6):669. https://doi.org/10.3390/met14060669
Chicago/Turabian StyleAydogan, Beytullah, and Kevin Chou. 2024. "Review of In Situ Detection and Ex Situ Characterization of Porosity in Laser Powder Bed Fusion Metal Additive Manufacturing" Metals 14, no. 6: 669. https://doi.org/10.3390/met14060669