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Review

Research Progress on Preparation, Microstructure, Properties, and Optimization of Ta and Its Compounds’ Coatings

by
Zijun Wang
1,
Guanglin Zhu
1,*,
Ke Lv
2,3,
Jie Li
4,
Xinfeng Yu
1,
Yonghao Yu
1,
Cean Guo
1,* and
Jian Zhang
1
1
School of Equipment Engineering, Shenyang Ligong University, Shenyang 110159, China
2
School of Environment and Safety Engineering, North University China, Taiyuan 030051, China
3
China Rongtong Resources Development Group Co., Ltd., Beijing 100017, China
4
China Rongtong Resources Development Company 3305 Factory, Dunhua 133700, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Metals 2025, 15(4), 416; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15040416
Submission received: 4 February 2025 / Revised: 11 March 2025 / Accepted: 1 April 2025 / Published: 7 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Corrosion and Protection)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Tantalum (Ta), along with its compounds and alloys, is extensively applied in the chemical, electronic, biological, and aerospace industries due to its excellent ductility, thermodynamic stability, and corrosion resistance. In recent years, coatings of Ta and its composites, fabricated using methods such as magnetron sputtering (MS), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), electrospark deposition (ESD), and cold spraying (CS), have undergone significant performance enhancements through extensive research efforts. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the preparation techniques, applications, and improvement techniques associated with Ta and its compounds’ coatings. The preparation process parameters, mechanical properties, and corrosion resistance of Ta alloy coating and Ta non-metallic compound coating are discussed in detail. The findings aim to contribute to the design and development of innovative Ta and its compounds’ coating systems or the refinement of existing systems.

1. Introduction

Tantalum (Ta), a transition metal typically found in association with niobium (Nb), exhibits a steel-gray color. Ta possesses a BCC crystal structure, characterized by good ductility at temperatures below 150 °C and a low coefficient of thermal expansion [1,2]. With a melting point of 2995 °C, it is classified as a refractory metal, recognized for its thermodynamic stability [3]. Tantalum also has very excellent chemical properties; whether under cold or hot conditions, it does not react to hydrochloric acid, concentrated nitric acid, and aqua regia, exhibiting very high corrosion resistance. The specific electrochemical parameters that make electrodeposition of tantalum coatings from aqueous solutions impossible. Electrolytic capacitors made of tantalum have the advantages of large capacity, small size, and good reliability. Owing to its high melting point, excellent corrosion resistance, superior electrical conductivity, and remarkable biocompatibility, Ta finds applications in the chemical industry [4], electronics industry [5,6], machinery industry [7], medicine, and other sectors [8,9,10]. Furthermore, Ta and its composite materials, noted for their exceptional corrosion resistance and mechanical properties, are increasingly utilized as coatings in military applications. Examples include jet engine components operating in high-temperature or extreme conditions, as well as heat-resistant and high-strength parts in rockets, aircraft, and artillery [11,12,13,14,15]. Ta and its compounds’ coatings refer to layers of Ta and Ta compounds formed on substrate surfaces through advanced surface technologies. These coatings enhance the substrate’s resistance to challenging working environments or impart unique functional properties of Ta to the substrate surface. Commonly employed surface technologies include physical vapor deposition (PVD) [12,16,17,18], chemical vapor deposition (CVD) [13,19], cold spraying (CS) [20,21], electrospark deposition (ESD) [22], and other coating deposition techniques [23,24,25,26].
In recent years, substantial research has been conducted on Ta and its compounds in the context of material protective coatings. Ta coatings are utilized to enhance the thermal shock resistance and ablative resistance of gun barrel base materials [12,13]. Additionally, these coatings protect substrate materials from oxidation [9,27]. Ta carbide (TaC) significantly increases coating hardness [28,29] and exhibits remarkable properties, including a high melting point, high hardness, excellent oxidation resistance, thermal shock resistance, a low coefficient of thermal expansion, biocompatibility, and good electrical conductivity. These attributes make TaC highly effective in applications such as ablative resistance, gas corrosion, and oxidation protection under high-temperature conditions, and improvements in biocompatibility [30,31,32]. Ta nitride (TaN) enhances the electrochemical performance of coatings and improves thermal conductivity. TaN is widely employed in applications requiring high hardness, superior wear resistance, exceptional corrosion resistance, and high-temperature stability [33,34]. Furthermore, tungsten (W), a refractory metal, can be alloyed with Ta to strengthen the material and enhance chemical stability [35,36]. Ta-W alloy coatings primarily serve to improve the ablative, anti-erosion, and anti-oxidation properties of materials while increasing hardness, wear resistance, and thermal stability. These properties have led to their extensive use in high-temperature components and superconducting barrier layer materials [37,38,39], with particular emphasis on their application as protective coatings for gun tubes [40].
In recent years, the biological properties of Ta coatings have been extensively studied. Although various performance characteristics of Ta and its compounds’ coatings have been extensively studied and analyzed by researchers, with a focus on performance enhancement and establishing a theoretical foundation for their broader application, comprehensive literature reviews on Ta and its compounds’ coatings in the field of material protection remain limited. This paper provides a review of relevant studies, summarizing the preparation techniques, performance attributes, and applications of Ta and its compounds’ coatings. The aim is to offer readers a systematic understanding of the research progress and key developments in the field of Ta and its compounds’ coatings. It is our hope that the paper will help researchers to inspire new research methods and ideas.

2. Preparation Technology of Ta and Its Compounds Coating

2.1. Physical Vapor Deposition

Physical vapor deposition (PVD) is a widely utilized surface technology, with magnetron sputtering (MS) being a common method for depositing Tantalum (Ta) and its compounds coating. During the MS process, an ion beam generated by an ion source bombards the target’s surface, causing atoms from the target material to undergo collision bombardment. These atoms are then ejected from the target’s surface and deposited onto the substrate surface, as illustrated in Figure 1.
MS is particularly advantageous for depositing materials with high melting points and can be applied to substrates of complex geometries. It offers benefits such as rapid film formation, high efficiency, uniform composition, and strong adhesion [41,42,43]. The phase structure of Ta coatings significantly impacts their properties. By controlling MS deposition parameters, including substrate temperature [44,45], coating thickness [46], bias voltage [47,48], sputtering gas [49,50], and ion bombardment conditions [51], it is possible to regulate the crystalline phase to achieve the desired α-Ta structure.

2.2. Chemical Vapor Deposition

MS is a “line-of-sight” technology, which limits the protection against wear and erosion along the spiral path. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a key technique for film growth, involving the chemical reaction of gaseous precursors. This process delivers gaseous compounds containing sediment atoms to the deposition chamber. The source gas reacts chemically with the surface of a substrate heated to a specific temperature, resulting in the formation of solid sediments, as illustrated in Figure 2. CVD technology provides benefits such as rapid deposition, high film purity, and uniformity, and is suited well for depositing films on large substrates. The film thickness can be accurately controlled by adjusting the reaction time and conditions.
CVD is commonly employed in the fabrication of wear-resistant, corrosion-resistant coatings with distinct electrical properties [42,43,44]. Throughout the CVD process, gaseous chemicals interact with the substrate surface to produce a coating with both uniform and gradient structures, proving to be an efficient method for Ta and its compounds coating deposition [13,19,52].

2.3. Cold Spraying

In addition to vapor deposition technology, cold spraying (CS) technology is also frequently selected by researchers to prepare Ta coatings [9,23]. The primary principle of CS technology involves accelerating micron-sized particles to supersonic speeds (typically 500–1200 m/s) using high-speed air currents (such as nitrogen or helium). These particles are plastically deformed and mechanically bonded when they collide with the matrix, resulting in strong adhesion, as shown in Figure 3. Unlike conventional thermal spraying, CS is performed at lower temperatures, thus avoiding the detrimental effects of high temperatures on both the substrate and coating materials, such as oxidation, deformation, or phase changes.
In comparison to other thermal spraying techniques, CS technology utilizes a lower process temperature and higher particle velocity. When powder particles collide with the substrate at high speeds (high kinetic energy), they deform and bond with the substrate, creating a coating [53,54,55]. Furthermore, during the CS process, factors such as particle size, temperature, and air pressure play a significant role in determining the quality of the coating [53,56,57]. Since the spray material remains solid and does not undergo phase changes during CS, it is theoretically possible to produce a high-density pure metal coating through this method [58,59].

2.4. Electrospark Deposition

Electrospark deposition (ESD) is a surface treatment method where materials are deposited onto a substrate using the principle of electric discharge machining [22]. The process involves generating a high-voltage electric field between two conductors (the deposited electrode and the workpiece). When the electrodes are close enough, a spark discharge occurs between them, as shown in Figure 4. The discharge generates high temperatures that melt or vaporize part of the material on the surface of the deposited electrode. This molten material is ejected as liquid droplets, which rapidly cool and solidify upon contact. During this process, atomic-level fusion, diffusion, and alloying occur between the electrode and various components of the workpiece, forming the desired cladding coating [60].
ESD is suitable for depositing a variety of materials, including metals, alloys, ceramics, and composite materials, and offers precise control over coating thickness and composition, making it ideal for micro-machining. This process generates less waste compared to some other surface treatment techniques [61]. It is mainly used for the production or repair of coatings on small, precision components.

2.5. Other Coating Deposition Techniques

In addition to the common coating preparation techniques mentioned above, the following methods also find certain applications. Plasma spraying (PS) is a widely used surface treatment technique for applying high-performance coatings to substrates. The principle of PS involves utilizing the heat from a plasma arc to melt or partially melt powder materials, which are then sprayed onto the substrate surface through high-speed airflow to create a coating [62,63]. PS technology offers benefits such as a wide selection of materials, strong bonding strength, and excellent adaptability of coatings [64,65]. Micro-arc oxidation (MAO) is a high-energy electrochemical method for treating metal surfaces, particularly suitable for light metals like aluminum, magnesium, titanium, and their alloys. One advantage of MAO is that it forms a coating that is not only microporous but also uniformly applied to the metal surface or complex inner pore walls, providing good adhesion to the substrate [66,67].

3. Microstructure and Properties of Ta Coatings

A large amount of high-temperature gases, including CO, H2, H2O, N2, and H2S, are produced during gun launch, causing a rapid increase in temperature and pressure within the gun bore [68,69,70,71,72]. To extend the life of the gun barrel, researchers focus on modifying and strengthening the surface to improve its resistance to ablation and wear. Among these approaches, applying anti-ablative coatings to the gun barrel surface has attracted significant interest [73,74]. Cr coatings, with their well-established preparation process and economic benefits, have been widely used to improve gun barrel lifespan [75,76,77]. However, Cr coatings are prone to cracking and detachment, and hexavalent Cr is a potent carcinogen that contributes to environmental pollution [78,79,80]. In comparison, Ta has a higher melting point (3290 K), greater strength, and ductility (α-Ta), allowing it to resist thermal shock, cracking, and erosion from byproducts more effectively. Therefore, in recent years, thick Ta coatings have been considered for the inner walls of large gun tubes [12,13].
Furthermore, research has shown that Ta coatings typically exist in two phases: α-Ta and β-Ta. The α phase, characterized by a stable BCC lattice structure, exhibits good ductility, high hardness (8–12 GPa, tested with a nanoindentation instrument), and low resistivity (15–80 μΩ·cm), making it ideal for protective coatings [44,81,82]. In contrast, the metastable β-Ta phase, with a tetragonal lattice structure, has high resistivity (150–200 μΩ·cm), brittleness (hardness 18–20 GPa), and inferior mechanical and thermal properties due to the β→α phase transition above 750 °C [17,83]. The presence of the β-Ta phase negatively impacts the coating’s integrity and stability under strain, making it unsuitable for use in protective coatings.
Lee et al. [84] emphasized that a Ta coating on the barrel’s interior should primarily consist of the α-phase and be at least 75 μm thick to withstand thermal shock and high shear forces, thereby ensuring the barrel’s service life. Niu et al. [85] successfully prepared a Ta coating with an α-Ta surface structure, demonstrating excellent resistance to ablation. Additionally, Niu et al. [12] applied a thick α-Ta coating on 30CrNi3MoV steel using direct circuit MS, which exhibited strong thermal shock resistance without any spalling. Figure 5 illustrates the Ta coating after undergoing a thermal shock test. At a thermal shock temperature of 1000 °C, Figure 5a shows a network of segmented cracks perpendicular to the surface, while Figure 5b (enlarged) reveals micro-cracks resulting from the coating’s shrinkage after cooling. Figure 5c displays the cross-sectional topography, where the coating/substrate interface still maintains a strong bond. In Figure 5d, the enlarged view shows irregular and non-parallel cracks in the Ta coating cross-section, but no flaking occurred after 20 thermal cycles. However, given the current technological constraints, the formation of the β phase in Ta coatings is nearly inevitable, necessitating the optimization of process parameters during coating preparation.
Knepper et al. [45] applied MS technology to deposit Ta coatings on an amorphous silicon substrate at room temperature. They found that an initial amorphous Ta layer of about 1.6 nm in thickness was formed, followed by the preferential nucleation of the β-Ta phase due to its lower nucleation barrier compared to the α-Ta phase. As the substrate temperature rose to 450–600 K, the driving force for α-Ta nucleation increased, leading to the simultaneous presence of both α-Ta and β-Ta phases. When the temperature exceeded 600 K, the Ta coating was composed entirely of pure α-Ta.
Gladczuk et al. [46] used MS technology to directly deposit Ta coatings of varying thicknesses on steel surfaces. As shown in Figure 6, the 4 μm thick Ta coating deposited at room temperature consisted of the β-Ta phase. When the substrate temperature was increased to 300 °C, a mixed-phase deposition occurred, and at 400 °C, the coating was composed of pure α-Ta. This demonstrated that heating the substrate promotes the formation of the α-Ta phase. In coatings deposited at 400 °C with different thicknesses, the phase structure of the coating varied with thickness. As seen in Figure 7, the β-Ta phase grew preferentially, but as the coating thickness increased, the α-Ta phase gradually replaced the β-Ta phase, and the coating fully transitioned to pure α-Ta after reaching a certain thickness.
Suh et al. [13] explored the synthesis of Ta coatings on high-strength steel surfaces through plasma-assisted chemical vapor deposition (PACVD), using Ta pentachloride (TaCl5) as the precursor and hydrogen (H2) as the reducing agent. As deposition temperature and pressure increased, the growth rate of the Ta coating was accelerated. Their findings showed that the Ta coating contained small amounts of carbon, oxygen, and chlorine impurities. The surface roughness of the Ta coating was greater than that of the steel substrate but decreased as the deposition temperature increased.
Matson et al. [50] demonstrated that a dense α-Ta phase could be achieved in Ta coatings with thicknesses of 130–150 μm by using Kr and Xe as sputtering gases. However, when Ar was used as the sputtering gas, the coating consisted of the β-Ta phase. Matthew et al. [23] utilized the CS process to produce Ta coatings on gun tube linings, achieving a hardness of 21 HRC. Koivuluoto et al. [9] compared two different CS process conditions for Ta coatings; modified powder has a finer particle size after modification, with an oxygen content of 0.188% for standard powder and 0.045% for modified powder. The researchers found that gas pressure and preheating temperature were the most effective parameters, and for materials with high melting points, high temperature and pressure softened the particles, resulting in stronger bonding via plastic deformation [86].

4. Microstructure and Properties of Ta Compound Coating

4.1. Ta Oxide Coating

Due to its distinctive properties, Ta oxide coatings demonstrate excellent electro-optical characteristics [87,88,89], including a high dielectric constant [90,91,92] and high refractive index [93,94]. Ta oxide can exist in various valence states and crystal structures, with a melting temperature of 1800 °C, offering strong thermal and chemical stability in high-temperature environments. As a result, Ta oxide is commonly used in high-temperature and thermally corrosive conditions [95,96,97,98].
Zheng et al. [99] utilized the plasma spraying method to produce Ta oxide coatings and examined their laser ablation performance. During the laser ablation process, the coating underwent three stages: initially, oxidation occurred, leading to an increase in reflection; next, microcracks appeared and expanded; and finally, the coating failed due to breakage. Roy et al. [100] employed plasma spraying to create dense Ta oxide coatings and investigated their wear resistance. The findings revealed that the friction coefficient of the Ta oxide coating decreased with increasing temperature, from 0.9 at 25 °C to 0.8 at 300 °C. As a result, the wear rate at 300 °C was significantly reduced. The wear mechanisms of the coatings at 25 °C and 300 °C were analyzed, as shown in Figure 8. The higher wear rate at 25 °C could be due to the accumulation of debris particles and brittle fractures, leading to increased wear [101,102]. At 300 °C, the coating demonstrated improved ductility [103,104], and the wear mechanism shifted from fracture to plastic deformation and material displacement due to the rough contact surface. The frictional heating generated a smooth, stable layer on the wear track, substantially reducing the wear rate [105].
Wang et al. [27] developed a coating consisting of CaTa2O6, Ta2O5, and TaO on the surface of pure Ta using the MAO technique. The results indicated that the coating had a porous structure and demonstrated good corrosion resistance. As the oxidation time increased, the coating growth process progressed through three distinct stages: In the initial stage (0–1 min), both the total thickness and growth rate of the coating increased significantly, with predominant outward growth. During the intermediate stage (1–5 min), the total thickness of the coating increased more gradually, and the growth rate sharply decreased. At this point, outward growth slowed, while inward growth continued. In the final stage (5–15 min), the coating mainly exhibited inward growth.

4.2. Ta Carbide Coating

TaC coatings are produced through various methods, including plasma spraying [32], CVD [106], and carburizing [107]. Carburizing involves the diffusion of carbon atoms to the surface of Ta, resulting in carbide deposition and the formation of a coating. As carbon diffuses inward, the coating grows inward, ensuring strong adhesion [29]. Because the carbon concentration decreases with depth, the coating typically has a high carbide content near the surface, which contributes to a high surface hardness [28]. Traditional carburizing methods include gas, liquid, and solid carburizing. In these processes, the sample is placed in a sealed chamber filled with gaseous carbon atoms, which are absorbed and penetrate into the surface. However, the low carbon atom density limits carbide nucleation and coating growth, while high carbon atom density may lead to carbon deposition on the surface, inhibiting further absorption. To overcome the challenges of traditional carburizing methods, plasma carburizing technology was developed. This technique uses carbon ions, generated in the plasma, which are accelerated by an electric field and directed toward the sample. The fast-moving carbon ions prevent surface deposition while enhancing the thickness of the coating. However, due to the low surface carbon concentration, plasma carburizing often results in coatings with rough grains [30].
Recently, researchers have introduced contact solid carburizing, or interstitial carburizing [108,109], which utilizes interstitial carbon from a solid source, such as high carbon steel or cast iron. When the solid carbon source and the matrix are hot-pressed, carbon atoms naturally diffuse into the sample, forming carbides on the surface. Zhao et al. [31] applied gap carburizing technology to prepare a TaC coating on the Ta surface, using high carbon steel with a high content of gap carbon atoms as the carbon source. EBSD analysis revealed that the TaC coating was dense, consisting of TaC, small amounts of Ta2C, and trace amounts of residual Ta, as shown in Figure 9.
Ta2C has a hexagonal closest-packed metal lattice (P63/mmc), with carbon atoms occupying half of the octahedral sites, while Ta adopts a body-centered cubic (BCC) structure. These differences make the structures of Ta2C and Ta distinguishable from TaC in EBSD analysis. As the depth increased, the grain size of TaC grew from 280 nm to 330 nm, with the grain shape shifting from equiaxial to columnar, resulting in a microscopic gradient structure. A small amount of Ta2C grains was observed at the interface between the coating and substrate, indicating the potential for a multi-phase transition from Ta to Ta2C and then to TaC. The TaC coating demonstrated exceptional mechanical properties, with a hardness of 1900 HV. As the applied load increased from 0 N to 100 N, the coating cracked at 10 N, and when the load surpassed 80 N, local exposure of the substrate occurred.

4.3. Ta Nitride Coating

Ta nitride is renowned for its exceptional hardness, wear and corrosion resistance, as well as its excellent thermal stability and conductivity [110,111,112]. These properties make it widely utilized in electronic materials, wear-resistant and corrosion-resistant components, and thermally sensitive materials [33,82,113]. Ta nitride can exist in several stable phase structures, including Ta(N), hexagonal γ-Ta2N, hexagonal ε-TaN, and other forms such as δ-TaN, Ta5N6, Ta4N5, and Ta3N5 [114,115], each possessing distinct characteristics. The preparation of Ta nitride coatings typically involves sputtering deposition of Ta [116,117], and by adjusting deposition parameters, the phase structure and microstructure of the coating can be controlled to enhance its performance [118,119].
Firouzabadi et al. [33] used sputtering to deposit Ta nitride coatings and investigated how sputtering power affected the coating’s roughness. They found that as the sputtering power increased from 30 W to 60 W, the deposition rate rose from 1.88 m/h to 3.26 m/h, and the surface roughness also increased. In a related study, Firouzabadi et al. [34] examined the influence of nitrogen flow ratio on the coating’s structure and mechanical properties. Their results revealed that as the nitrogen flow ratio increased from 10% to 25%, the phase structure of the coating changed from γ-Ta2N to ε-TaN and eventually to δ-TaN. This transition caused a reduction in hardness while increasing plasticity from 58% to 80%. Liao et al. [120] observed a similar trend, where increasing nitrogen flow led to a shift in the main phase of the Ta nitride coating from γ-Ta2N to ε-TaN and δ-TaN. After the addition of nitrogen, the hardness and wear resistance of the Ta coating were significantly improved, with the δ-TaN coating exhibiting excellent wear resistance due to its face-centered cubic structure, as shown in Figure 10.

5. Microstructure and Properties of Ta Alloy Coating

5.1. Ta-W Alloy Coating

Ta-W alloy is characterized by its high melting point, excellent ductility, and strength [66,121], along with superior corrosion resistance compared to pure Ta [122,123], making it effective in improving ablative resistance. Ta-W alloy coatings have been fabricated through techniques such as MS [124], ion plating [39,125,126], and molten salt electrodeposition [38].
Sun et al. [126] used multi-arc ion plating to deposit a Ta-10W coating, about 9 μm thick, onto TC4 alloy, ensuring a strong bond between the coating and substrate. The corrosion resistance of the Ta-10W coating was evaluated through electrochemical corrosion experiments. After immersion in a 5% HCl solution for 168 h, the surface of the Ta-10W coating remained mostly unaffected, while the substrate exhibited varying degrees of corrosion. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy demonstrated that the Ta-10W coating enhanced charge transfer resistance and dielectric properties, which helped slow the corrosion rate and improve the corrosion resistance of the substrate.
Peng et al. [39] applied arc ion plating to prepare a Ta-W coating on titanium alloy with a thickness of about 32 μm, ensuring a crack-free surface. Peng also examined the cyclic oxidation behavior of the Ta-W coating, as shown in Figure 11. In Figure 11a, the weight changes of the pure substrate and the Ta-W coated substrate are compared. The results showed that the oxides formed on the pure substrate were easily removed during the cyclic oxidation process. However, after applying the Ta-W coating, the weight decreased initially due to the sublimation of WO3 during the first 1–5 oxidation cycles. The weight then steadily increased from 5 to 25 oxidation cycles and showed a slight increase from 25 to 50 oxidation cycles, indicating that the Ta-W coating remained intact after 50 oxidation cycles. XRD analysis in Figure 11b revealed that the substrate was composed of TiO2 and Al2O3, while the oxides on the Ta-W coating were mainly β-Ta2O5 and WO3, with additional compounds like Al3Ti, AlWO4, and AlTaO4 detected after five oxidation cycles. After 25 oxidation cycles, Ta2O5, WO3, and TixW1−x significantly decreased, while TiO2, Al2O3, AlTaO4, and AlWO4 continued to increase. After 25 and 50 oxidation cycles, the Ta-W coating still contained the α-Ta phase, confirming the coating’s durability throughout the oxidation process.
Ma et al. [40] utilized double-glow plasma alloying technology to deposit a Ta-W coating onto the surface of PCrNi3MoVA steel and investigated its laser ablation performance, as illustrated in Figure 12. After 1 s of laser ablation, the coating’s surface remained smooth, with no Fe detected by EDS. At 3 s, a central region appeared, containing some Fe, though the Ta element was not entirely absent, and the ablation depth reached the diffusion layer. After 5 s, the central region expanded notably, with the ablation depth still within the diffusion layer, and oxide particles were scattered in the transition zone. When the ablation time increased to 10 s, the transition zone was significantly reduced, and the central area was almost entirely Fe, indicating that the coating was nearly fully burned. At 15 s of ablation, the transition region disappeared. In summary, as the laser ablation time increased, the surface of the Ta-W coating initially showed a splash zone, followed by the development of a central zone. This zone progressively expanded and merged with the splash zone, ultimately leading to the complete burning of the coating.

5.2. Ta-Cr Alloy Coating

Ta-Cr alloy coatings combine the excellent attributes of both Ta and chromium, including high hardness, wear resistance, and oxidation resistance. These coatings perform well at elevated temperatures and are commonly applied in high-temperature components, such as turbine blades and engine parts [127,128].
Chang et al. [128] fabricated a Cr0.71Ta0.29 binary alloy coating using MS and studied its performance. After annealing for 4 h at 600 °C in a glass-forming atmosphere containing 12 ppm O2-N2, Cr diffused outward, forming a protective Cr2O3 layer on the surface of the Ta-Cr coating. This process limited the inward diffusion of oxygen. The surface hardness of the coating increased to 12–16 GPa after annealing. Figure 13a illustrates the AES depth profile of the Cr0.71Ta0.29 coating after 600 °C annealing. The profile is divided into three regions based on compositional changes: In Region III, the atomic ratio of Cr/(Cr + Ta) remained at 0.69 ± 0.01. Region II, a Cr-depleted zone, showed that Cr had diffused outward, reacting with oxygen on the surface to form an oxide layer primarily composed of Cr and O (Region I). XPS analysis shown in Figure 13b confirms that region I consists of Cr3+ and O2− oxide layers. In region II, oxygen content decreases inward due to diffusion, Cr decreases, and Ta increases. Region III shows no oxygen, and Cr and Ta concentrations remain unchanged. These results confirm that during annealing at 600 °C, Cr diffuses outward, oxidizes to Cr3+, and forms a stable Cr2O3 oxide layer, while Ta5+ preferentially oxidizes in region II. Figure 14 provides a TEM image of the cross-section of the annealed Cr0.71Ta0.29 coating, with the regions marked according to the AES profile. In Region III, the coating consists of layered amorphous and nanocrystalline Cr phases. Region I is a dense, protective Cr2O3 oxide layer. Figure 14b,c show the interface between regions II and I, with Figure 14b revealing Cr2O3 nanocrystals smaller than 5 nm in Region II, and Figure 14c displaying dark fringes in Region II corresponding to Ta2O5. Thus, Region II contains a crystalline structure composed of Ta2O5 and Cr2O3. The hardness of the annealed Ta-Cr coating increases to 12–16 GPa, which is significantly higher than the hardness of Ta oxide (11.2 GPa) and chromium oxide coatings (5.1 GPa), indicating a substantial improvement in hardness properties.

6. Ta and Its Compounds Coating Improvement Technique

6.1. Pre-Treatment

The surface pre-treatment process before coating significantly influences the properties of the coating. This includes (1) cleaning, which eliminates oil and residue from the surface [129,130], and (2) etching, where a mixture of acids such as nitric acid, sulfuric acid, hydrofluoric acid, or bromic acid is used to dissolve the oxide layer, improving the adhesion between the coating and substrate [131]. Due to the potential differences between the precipitated phase and the substrate, the acid mixture can cause selective corrosion under specific conditions, which results in increased surface roughness [132,133,134]. Overall, pre-treatment methods enhance coating adhesion by creating physical voids and roughness [135,136,137] or by promoting bonding to the substrate by removing the oxide layer from the coating surface [138,139,140]. Albayrak et al. [141] performed various pre-treatment techniques, including polishing, 10% HCl solution, 5% NaOH solution, 50% HNO3 solution, and sandblasting on the surface of an aluminum alloy matrix. Ta2O5 coatings were then deposited on aluminum alloy samples with these different surface treatments using the RF spraying method, and the effect of pre-treatment on the wear resistance of the coatings was studied. The results revealed that acid etching negatively impacted the wear performance of the coating. In contrast, polishing and sandblasting significantly improved the wear performance, reducing the wear volume loss by 4.3% and 44.8%, respectively.

6.2. Buffer Layer

A buffer layer is initially prepared on the substrate surface to improve its compatibility with the coating’s surface characteristics. Suh et al. [19] utilized plasma-assisted CVD to apply a Ta coating onto high-strength steel. The Ta coating directly deposited on the steel primarily exhibited the β-Ta phase, while the α-Ta phase was preferentially formed when the coating was applied over the TaNx buffer layer. Hee et al. [142] employed sputtering to deposit a Ta coating on a TC4 substrate. To enhance the coating’s adhesion and wear resistance, a titanium buffer layer was first applied to the substrate, followed by the deposition of the Ta coating. Figure 15a,b illustrate the atomic force micrographs of the pure Ta coating and the Ta/Ti buffer coating, respectively. The mean roughness (Ra) and root mean square roughness (Ra) of the Ta/Ti buffer coating were notably lower than those of the pure Ta coating, and higher magnification revealed a smoother surface on the Ta/Ti buffer coating. Figure 15c,d present the results of the scratch tests for both coatings. A comparison of the results indicates that the Ta/Ti buffer coating significantly enhanced the critical load in the scratch test. The first critical load, at which the coating starts to wear, increased from 2.5 N to 7 N, while the second critical load, at which the coating begins to detach, increased from 18.6 N to 23 N. These results demonstrated that, in the absence of the Ti buffer layer, the bond strength of the pure Ta coating was weak. However, the adhesion between the Ta coating and the TC4 substrate was improved by the Ti buffer layer, significantly enhancing the wear resistance of the material.

6.3. Annealing Treatment

In recent years, it has been found that the performance and strength of Ta coatings can be enhanced by annealing at various temperatures [143,144,145], and their adhesion can also be improved [146]. Sarraf et al. [147] reported that after annealing at 450 °C for 1 h, the hardness of Ta2O5 deposited on the surface of TC4 increased to 7.5 GPa. Lee et al. [148] produced high-density Ta coatings using the dynamic spraying technique and investigated the effect of annealing on the coating’s properties. The coatings were annealed at 800 °C, 900 °C, 1000 °C, and 1100 °C for 1 h, with the results showing that the hardness of the coating decreased from 270 HV to 183 HV as the annealing temperature increased. Clevenger et al. [149] found that annealing at temperatures between 600 °C and 800 °C led to a phase transition from β-Ta to the thermodynamically stable α-Ta. Liao et al. [150] prepared Ta coatings on CoCrMo alloy substrates using MS technology and annealed them at 800 °C, 900 °C, and 1000 °C for 5 h. The results indicated that the average friction coefficient of the Ta coating decreased after annealing at 800 °C, with the highest adhesion achieved after annealing at 900 °C.

7. Summary and Prospect

Recent research in the field of Ta and its compounds’ coatings has led to significant advancements in both the preparation of coatings and the optimization of their structures. The preparation process parameters, mechanical properties, and corrosion resistance of Ta alloy coating and Ta non-metallic compound coating are discussed in detail. The coatings discussed in this paper are summarized in Table 1.
These studies have provided a solid theoretical foundation for the use of Ta and its compounds’ coatings across various applications. The optimization of Ta coating performance has made great progress in the field of material protection, but its wear and corrosion resistance needs to be further improved in practical applications. To better address the demands of modern industry, further development and innovation in Ta and its compounds’ coatings can focus on the following areas:
  • Optimization of coating preparation process
Building on existing techniques such as PVD, CVD, CS, and ESD, improvements in coating density, adhesion, and properties can be achieved by modifying parameters like deposition rate, substrate temperature, and atmosphere composition. Establishing the link between process technology and coating performance will provide the experimental groundwork for advancing coating properties.
2.
Exploration of coating formation mechanism
Coating deposition technology encompasses various fields, such as material surface and interface science, along with material mechanics. The deposition process involves complex interactions between the coating and substrate, as well as the influence of coating microstructure on its properties. A complete theoretical understanding of these processes has yet to be developed, and further research is necessary.
3.
Development of new coating types
Ta and its composite coatings are known for their excellent corrosion resistance and high-temperature stability. To diversify high-performance coatings, the physical and chemical properties of the coatings can be enhanced by introducing other metal or non-metal elements. This can help achieve optimal metallurgical compatibility between the substrate and the coating, resulting in the creation of new coatings with superior properties.
4.
Interdisciplinary application research of Ta and its compounds’ coatings
Although considerable progress has been made in research, challenges remain in the study of Ta and its compounds’ coatings. The exploration and optimization of processing conditions still require more attention, and a broader investigation of coating properties, especially under extreme conditions, is needed. As a result, interdisciplinary collaboration and innovation will be crucial for advancing the practical use of Ta and its compounds’ coatings in a wider range of industries.
In summary, the current state and progress of research on Ta and its compounds’ coatings demonstrate the vast potential in this field. As technological advancements continue, the future applications of Ta and its compounds’ coatings are expected to expand significantly.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.G., G.Z. and J.Z; writing—original draft preparation, Z.W., K.L. and J.L.; writing—review and editing, Z.W., G.Z., X.Y. and Y.Y.; investigation, K.L., J.L. and J.Z.; resources, X.Y.; data curation, Z.W. and Y.Y.; project administration, C.G. and G.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Research Project of application foundation of Liaoning Province of China (No. 2022JH2/101300006), the Research Project of Education Department of Liaoning Province of China (LJKMZ20220604 and 1030040000675), the Key Laboratory of Weapon Science & Technology Research (LJ232410144071), and the Light-Selection Team Plan of Shenyang Ligong University (SYLUGXTD5).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article; further inquiries can be directed at the corresponding authors.

Acknowledgments

The author also thanks the researchers of the School of Equipment Engineering, Shenyang Polytechnic University, for their guidance and help.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Ke Lv was employed by the company China Rongtong Resources Development Group Co., Ltd. Author Jie Li was employed by the company China Rongtong Resources Development Company 3305 Factory. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Schematic of MS principle.
Figure 1. Schematic of MS principle.
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Figure 2. Schematic of CVD principle.
Figure 2. Schematic of CVD principle.
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Figure 3. Schematic of CS principle.
Figure 3. Schematic of CS principle.
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Figure 4. Schematic diagram for principles of ESD. (a) Under protection gas; (b) Electrode contact; (c) Deposition of coating; (d) Deposition completed.
Figure 4. Schematic diagram for principles of ESD. (a) Under protection gas; (b) Electrode contact; (c) Deposition of coating; (d) Deposition completed.
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Figure 5. (a,b) Surface morphology and (c,d) cross-sectional morphology of the Ta coating after thermal shock test for 20 cycles [12] (copyrighted).
Figure 5. (a,b) Surface morphology and (c,d) cross-sectional morphology of the Ta coating after thermal shock test for 20 cycles [12] (copyrighted).
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Figure 6. XRD spectra of Ta coatings (4 μm) deposited on steel substrate at (a) room temperature, (b) 300 °C and (c) 400 °C [46] (copyrighted).
Figure 6. XRD spectra of Ta coatings (4 μm) deposited on steel substrate at (a) room temperature, (b) 300 °C and (c) 400 °C [46] (copyrighted).
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Figure 7. XRD spectra of Ta coatings with different thickness deposited on steel at 400 °C (Peaks marked S are from the substrate) (a) 0.02μm; (b) 0.07μm; (c) 0.3μm; (d) 5.8μm; (e) 10.1μm; (f) 21.6μm [46] (copyrighted).
Figure 7. XRD spectra of Ta coatings with different thickness deposited on steel at 400 °C (Peaks marked S are from the substrate) (a) 0.02μm; (b) 0.07μm; (c) 0.3μm; (d) 5.8μm; (e) 10.1μm; (f) 21.6μm [46] (copyrighted).
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Figure 8. Schematic of wear mechanism on Ta oxide coatings at (a) 25 °C and (b) 300 °C [100] (copyrighted).
Figure 8. Schematic of wear mechanism on Ta oxide coatings at (a) 25 °C and (b) 300 °C [100] (copyrighted).
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Figure 9. EBSD data on the cross-section of the TaC coated sample [31] (copyrighted).
Figure 9. EBSD data on the cross-section of the TaC coated sample [31] (copyrighted).
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Figure 10. (a) XRD profiles and (b) friction curves of TaN coatings with different N content on TC4 titanium alloy [120] (copyrighted).
Figure 10. (a) XRD profiles and (b) friction curves of TaN coatings with different N content on TC4 titanium alloy [120] (copyrighted).
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Figure 11. (a) Cyclic oxidation kinetics and (b) XRD results of Ta-W coating after cyclic oxidation at 900 °C [39] (copyrighted).
Figure 11. (a) Cyclic oxidation kinetics and (b) XRD results of Ta-W coating after cyclic oxidation at 900 °C [39] (copyrighted).
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Figure 12. Surface morphology and EDS element distribution at different ablation times [40] (copyrighted).
Figure 12. Surface morphology and EDS element distribution at different ablation times [40] (copyrighted).
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Figure 13. (a) AES depth profiles and (b) intensities of elements by XPS of 600 °C-annealed Cr0.71Ta0.29 coating [128] (copyrighted).
Figure 13. (a) AES depth profiles and (b) intensities of elements by XPS of 600 °C-annealed Cr0.71Ta0.29 coating [128] (copyrighted).
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Figure 14. TEM images of 600 °C-annealed Cr0.71Ta0.29 coating (a) TEM image of the coating cross-section; (b,c) the interface between regions II and I [128] (copyrighted).
Figure 14. TEM images of 600 °C-annealed Cr0.71Ta0.29 coating (a) TEM image of the coating cross-section; (b,c) the interface between regions II and I [128] (copyrighted).
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Figure 15. Atomic force micrograph of (a) pure Ta coating and (b) Ta/Ti buffer coating and scratch test of (c) pure Ta coating and (d) Ta/Ti buffer coating [142] (copyrighted).
Figure 15. Atomic force micrograph of (a) pure Ta coating and (b) Ta/Ti buffer coating and scratch test of (c) pure Ta coating and (d) Ta/Ti buffer coating [142] (copyrighted).
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Table 1. The coatings discussed in this paper.
Table 1. The coatings discussed in this paper.
CoatingsSynthesis MethodProperties
α-Ta [12,84,85]Magnetron sputteringExcellent ablative resistance
β-Ta [13,46]Magnetron sputteringBrittleness
Ta oxide [99,100]Plasma sprayingLaser ablation resistance and low wear rate
Ta carbide [31]Interstitial carburizingHigh hardness
Ta nitride [33,34,120]SputteringIncreased hardness and wear resistance
Ta-W alloy [37,40,126]Multi-arc ion platingExcellent corrosion resistance and cyclic oxidation resistance
Ta-Cr alloy [128]Magnetron sputteringHigh hardness
Ta oxide [141]Surface pretreatmentImprove wear resistance
α-Ta [142]Buffer LayerImprove wear resistance
Ta [148,149,150]Annealing TreatmentIncrease hardness
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Wang, Z.; Zhu, G.; Lv, K.; Li, J.; Yu, X.; Yu, Y.; Guo, C.; Zhang, J. Research Progress on Preparation, Microstructure, Properties, and Optimization of Ta and Its Compounds’ Coatings. Metals 2025, 15, 416. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15040416

AMA Style

Wang Z, Zhu G, Lv K, Li J, Yu X, Yu Y, Guo C, Zhang J. Research Progress on Preparation, Microstructure, Properties, and Optimization of Ta and Its Compounds’ Coatings. Metals. 2025; 15(4):416. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15040416

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wang, Zijun, Guanglin Zhu, Ke Lv, Jie Li, Xinfeng Yu, Yonghao Yu, Cean Guo, and Jian Zhang. 2025. "Research Progress on Preparation, Microstructure, Properties, and Optimization of Ta and Its Compounds’ Coatings" Metals 15, no. 4: 416. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15040416

APA Style

Wang, Z., Zhu, G., Lv, K., Li, J., Yu, X., Yu, Y., Guo, C., & Zhang, J. (2025). Research Progress on Preparation, Microstructure, Properties, and Optimization of Ta and Its Compounds’ Coatings. Metals, 15(4), 416. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15040416

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