Human Rights at the Climate Crossroads: Analysis of the Interconnection between Human Rights, Right to Climate, and Intensification of Extreme Climate Events

Abstract

This paper analyzes the theoretical foundation and practical implications of recognizing the right to a stable climate as a fundamental human right. Further, it examines the intersection of human rights, right to climate, and the intensification of extreme climate events. Through a bibliometric analysis, the study highlights the increase in scholarly attention paid to this nexus. The intensification of extreme climate events, such as the Cumbre Vieja volcano in Spain, is also analyzed as a catalyst for recognizing the right to climate as a human right, as a fundamental requirement for its enactment. Indeed, it is argued that this recognition is necessary to achieve climate justice. These thoughts about the necessity of recognizing the right to climate as a human right are also based on a similar case, the enactment of the rights to water and sanitation, which is presented as a case study, demonstrating how specific environmental rights can be integrated into human rights discourse. The results and discussion section synthesizes these findings, highlighting the imperative of recognizing climate rights to ensure justice and sustainability amidst escalating climate challenges.

1. Introduction

The intersection of human rights and climate change represents one of the most pressing challenges of our time. Climate change, driven by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, poses significant threats to the fundamental rights to life, health, food, water, and an adequate standard of living (Ekardt and Bärenwaldt 2023). As the global climate crisis escalates, it becomes increasingly clear that the right to climate is intrinsically linked to the protection of human rights. This paper explores the theoretical foundations of this relationship, focusing on the right to climate and its integration into broader human rights frameworks. Human rights, as consecrated in international law, include a wide array of protections, including the rights to life, health, water, and an adequate standard of living. In this sense, the right to climate would extend these fundamental rights, recognizing that a stable climate is essential for the enjoyment of all other human rights (Kalis and Priebe 2024). As a matter of fact, the concept of a right to climate has gained attention in recent years, advocating for legal frameworks that ensure the protection of individuals and communities from the adverse effects of climate change (Kalis and Priebe 2024). The intensification of extreme weather events, such as heatwaves, floods, and hurricanes, serves as a catalyst for the recognition of the right to climate as a human right. These events, exacerbated by climate change, disproportionately affect vulnerable populations, highlighting the urgent need for robust legal protections. In this context, very recently, the case study of the Cumbre Vieja volcano illustrates the devastating impact of extreme events, and underlines the necessity of integrating the right to climate into human rights discourse (Carracedo et al. 1999a).

Based on the abovementioned concepts, this work examines the integration of climate protection into human rights frameworks, advocating for legal and policy measures that safeguard the environment and uphold the dignity and rights of all individuals. As the global community grapples with the realities of climate change, it is imperative to adopt a holistic approach that recognizes the interdependence of human rights and environmental protection (Gasparri et al. 2022). Thus, the objectives of this paper are to explore the theoretical basis and practical consequences of acknowledging the right to a stable climate as a fundamental human right, investigate the link between human rights and climate rights in the context of increasingly extreme climate events, and highlight the growing academic focus on this relationship through a bibliometric analysis. Using the Cumbre Vieja volcano in Spain as a case study, the present work focuses on the essential recognition of climate rights in order to achieve climate justice (Milford et al. 2023). Additionally, it draws comparisons with the establishment of the rights to water and sanitation so as to demonstrate how specific environmental rights can be incorporated into human rights discourse, ultimately stressing the necessity of recognizing climate rights to ensure justice and sustainability amid escalating climate challenges.

2. Methodology

The methodology of the present work integrates both qualitative and quantitative methods to provide a comprehensive analysis that will help us to explore the interconnection between human rights (HR), the right to climate (RC), and the increasing impact of extreme weather events, including the recent eruption of the Cumbre Vieja volcano on La Palma, Spain, as a case of study.

First, we conducted a thorough literature review to establish the theoretical background and key concepts related to human rights and the right to climate. This involved examining international legal frameworks, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and various human rights treaties, to understand how climate change impacts fundamental human rights, including the rights to life, health, and housing. Further, we also reviewed scholarly articles and reports that discuss the right to climate, emphasizing the need for a human-rights-based approach to climate action. To assess the impact of extreme weather events, recent occurrences, particularly the 2021 eruption of the Cumbre Vieja volcano on La Palma, Spain, are analyzed. This event was chosen because of its significant socio-economic and environmental consequences, which provide a concrete example of how extreme weather disasters can affect human rights. Thus, we analyzed the data on the eruption’s impact, including the destruction of homes, displacement of populations, and economic losses. A bibliometric analysis that maps the research landscape on the interconnection between human rights, the right to climate, and the connection with extreme weather events, is also presented. This bibliometric analysis using a Scopus database allowed us to identify relevant metrics, such as the number of documents per year, types of documents, top contributing countries, and institutions funding research in the field. By integrating these methods, the present work aims to provide a holistic understanding of the complex interplay between human rights and the right to climate. The bibliometric analysis not only contextualizes the present theoretical discussions but also identifies areas where further research is needed, offering recommendations for future studies and policy development in the examined area.

3. Theoretical Background and Key Concepts

3.1. Human Rights

Historically, human rights are the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every person in the world, regardless of their nationality, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexual orientation, or any other status. They are founded on the principles of universality, nature, equality, dignity, and respect for all human beings (Becerra Ramírez and Salas Benítez 2016). As far as they are recognized worldwide, human rights are i. universal, because they apply to everyone, everywhere, and at all times; ii. natural, because they are inherent to human nature; that is, they emanate from the same human species, from the same human condition; iii. equal, because they are the same for all people and cannot be discriminated against or violated by anyone; iv. a matter of dignity, because dignity is the recognition of the inherent value and worth of every human being, and it also implies that all people are equal and deserve respect and protection. Therefore, it does not depend on any external authority or law but rather on the human condition and nature. Therefore, dignity is an essential component of human rights’ foundation, as it expresses the intrinsic value and dignity of every human being, and the need to safeguard and enhance it in all situations (Łuków 2018). As a matter of fact, human rights are essential to the protection and promotion of human dignity, justice, and peace in the world. Human rights are also necessary for the development and well-being of individuals and societies. They are also recognized and guaranteed by various international instruments, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Becerra Ramírez and Salas Benítez 2016; United Nations 1948; Valdés De Hoyos and Uribe Arzate 2016). These instruments establish the norms and standards required for the respect and fulfillment of human rights by states and other actors. Thus, human rights are accepted worldwide as not static or fixed but rather dynamic and evolving. Indeed, they must reflect the changing needs and aspirations of humanity, and respond to new challenges and opportunities. In this way, they are interrelated, interdependent, and indivisible, meaning that the violation of one right affects the enjoyment of others, and that all rights are equally important and essential (Becerra Ramírez and Salas Benítez 2016; United Nations 1948; Valdés De Hoyos and Uribe Arzate 2016). In this sense, human rights strive to protect the freedom and intrinsic dignity of human beings, and this has been recognized since 1948, after the declaration of the International Bill of Human Rights or Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations 1948), as advanced in 1975 by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which establishes that they are essential for the development of life, including the rights to food, housing, health, education, work, and water (United Nations 1976).

3.2. Right to Climate

The right to climate is an evolving legal concept that seeks to ensure a safe and sustainable climate environment for all people. Although it is not explicitly recognized, it is based on the fundamental idea that all human beings have the inherent right to live in a healthy and environmentally respectful space (Arturo 2023). This right is, indeed, based on principles and documents related to human rights, such as the rights to life, health, and an adequate standard of living. Its primary objective is to protect people from the negative impacts of climate change, including extreme climate events, sea-level rise, and biodiversity loss (Arturo 2023). The right to climate is closely linked to climate justice and the need to take urgent measures to mitigate climate change. Although there is no specific international treaty that explicitly recognizes the right to a stable climate, several legal instruments such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement represent international efforts to address climate change (Novel 2023). The recognition and effective implementation of the right to climate require commitments at the global, national, and local levels, including reducing emissions, transferring technology to vulnerable countries, and adopting measures to limit global warming to safe levels (Arturo 2023). In this context, recently, Rocasolano has explored this emerging concept of the right to a stable climate, emphasizing its significance as a fundamental human right. The author argues that this right should be acknowledged and safeguarded alongside other human rights because of its direct impact on people’s lives, health, and dignity. Additionally, the article underlines the necessity of a robust regulatory framework to govern geoengineering techniques, ensuring transparency, public participation, and access to environmental justice. Further, the author claims that this approach would be crucial to achieving the Sustainable Development Goal 13 on Climate Action, promoting intergenerational justice and environmental protection (Méndez Rocasolano 2019). Similarly, a very recent UNESCO and The Lancet Planetary Health report discusses the evolution of the right to a stable climate, highlighting how this concept has gained legal relevance in recent years. It explains that the right to a stable climate has become a central issue in numerous lawsuits worldwide, where citizens and organizations demand that governments take stronger measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and protect the climate system. Notable cases are mentioned, such as the Urgenda Foundation case in the Netherlands, where courts ruled in favor of emissions reductions based on human rights principles and governmental due diligence. Such litigation has set important precedents and inspired similar legal actions in other countries, solidifying the right to a stable climate as an extension of fundamental human rights (Novel 2023; The Lancet Planetary Health 2024). In the same context, the work published in the Oñati Socio-Legal Series titled “Human rights and the impacts of climate change” discusses the intersection between human rights and climate change, emphasizing the need to address the permanent and irreversible impacts of climate change from a human rights perspective. It argues that while the Paris Agreement acknowledges the urgency of addressing these impacts, it does not provide mechanisms to hold state and non-state actors accountable for the damage caused to people, property, and the environment. In this regard, it suggests that international human rights law can act as a temporary “gap filler”, while more effective tools are developed to address the impacts of climate change. This approach emphasizes the importance of human rights institutions at regional, national, and international levels in closing the accountability gap left by the Paris Agreement and protecting the right to a stable climate as an essential component of human rights (Savaresi 2020). The Escazú Agreement, adopted in the Costa Rican city of Escazú, in March 2018, contains several provisions that are relevant to addressing climate issues, the most important of which are found in articles 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, these articles provide a framework legal that can be applied to climate action. This treaty legally equates environmental rights with human rights (Young 2018). This treaty aimed to ensure the rights of all individuals to a healthy environment and their participation in decisions affecting their lives and surroundings. It explicitly includes the Human Rights connection but also operationalizes Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration adopted at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in 2012, which established access to information, participation, and justice in environmental matters as essential for all individuals (United Nations 2016b). The Escazú Agreement aligns with the Sustainable Development Goals. However, the main drawback of this initiative is its regional limitation. Indeed, this is a treaty intended for the Latin American region, with only 15 parties and 25 signatories (United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) 2023).

3.3. Right to Climate Protection and the Human Right to Climate Adaptation

The Right to Climate Protection (RCP) is also an emerging legal concept, similar to the Right to Climate (RC), but it is not yet explicitly recognized in many international treaties. Unlike the RC, the RCP is more specific and action-oriented, focusing on individuals’ rights to have governments and other entities take concrete actions to protect the climate. The RCP is built on the following four key pillars: i. essential human rights; ii. state and corporate responsibility; iii. the international legal framework; and iv. global commitments (Bordner et al. 2023; Byskov 2024; Kahl 2022; Kalis and Priebe 2024; Méndez Rocasolano 2019).

To gain a comprehensive understanding of the right to climate, it is crucial to examine the concepts of climate protection and the human right to climate adaptation. These concepts have arisen in response to the imperative of securing access to a stable and safe climate. Thus, the formal recognition of the right to climate seem essential for achieving this goal.

As introduced recently by Kahl, the right to climate protection would involve the responsibility of states and other actors of implementing actions that mitigate climate change and adapt to its consequences, thereby protecting the human rights of individuals and communities. This right would be closely linked to climate justice and is based on the premise that everyone should have access to a safe and stable climate (Kahl 2022).

For its part, as discussed by Bordner et al., the human right to climate adaptation refers to the obligation of states to ensure that individuals and communities can adjust to the impacts of climate change. This includes implementing measures that enhance resilience and reduce vulnerability to climate effects, while ensuring that adaptation policies uphold human rights. This right would also be closely linked to climate justice and would emphasize inclusive participation in decision-making processes (Bordner et al. 2023).

Although these concepts are interrelated and share the goal of protecting people from the adverse effects of climate change, each has a specific focus and set of obligations. To address these specific obligations, it is first necessary to ensure a climate environment that does not endanger health and well-being, and this would be achieved globally through the enactment of the right to climate.

In our analysis, we adopt the concept of “right to climate” because of its broader and more comprehensive nature, which includes but is not limited to the fundamental right to a stable and secure climate. This approach allows to address the subject from a general perspective, thus laying the groundwork for a more detailed examination of specific aspects. It is crucial to highlight that the concepts of right to climate, right to climate protection, and human right to climate adaptation are intrinsically interrelated and frequently intertwine in the context of climate litigation and human rights debates. In fact, the current trend in these fields is moving toward a more holistic and integrative approach that incorporates elements from all these concepts. This evolution reflects a growing recognition of the complexity of the climate challenge and the need to address its multiple facets in a coherent and comprehensive manner. Using the broader concept of right to climate, we seek to capture this integrative trend, allowing us to explore the various legal, ethical, and practical dimensions of climate protection and adaptation without losing sight of the fundamental interconnection among these aspects.

4. Bibliometric Analysis

Given the increasing frequency of extreme weather events and their profound impact on human rights, a bibliometric study focusing on the number of publications per year, types of documents, top 10 countries, and institutions funding research in the areas of human rights (HR) and the right to climate (RC) is essential. Such a study would provide valuable insights into how these fields are evolving, identify key contributors and trends, and highlight gaps in the current research. By understanding the scholarly attention given to the right to climate and its implications for human rights, policymakers and researchers can better strategize to mitigate the adverse impacts of climate change on human rights and promote more resilient and equitable societies.

The present bibliometric study utilizes a comprehensive Scopus database search up to 2024 to identify and analyze publications related to human rights (HR), the right to climate (RC), and their intersection (HR & RC). Key metrics such as the number of documents per year, types of documents, top contributing countries, and institutions funding research were examined. Data were extracted, cleaned, and categorized to provide insights into research trends, key contributors, and gaps in the literature. This methodology ensures a robust analysis of the evolving landscape in these critical areas.

The number of documents per year (NDPY) for each keyword category is shown in

Table 1. Number of documents per year (NDPY) using the keywords human rights (HR), right to climate (RC), and their intersection.

	Acronym	Keywords	Number of Documents per Year (NDPY)
1	HR	Human rights	2,165,039
2	RC	Right and climate	50,149
3	HR & RC	Human rights and right and climate	10,136

. The large number of documents (more than two million) related to human rights (HRs) underlines the extensive scholarly attention paid to, and the historical depth of, this field, reflecting its foundational importance in global governance, law, and social justice. In contrast, the right and climate (RC) category comprises over 50,000 documents, demonstrating that this area, intrinsically linked to a specialized and emergent topic, is gaining prominence. This trend is driven by the increasing urgency and evident impacts of climate change. The relatively smaller number of publications compared to HR indicates that while the topic is growing, it is still developing its academic and policy frameworks. The intersection of human rights and the right to climate (HR & RC), with 10,136 documents, highlights a critical but less explored nexus, focusing on how climate change affects human rights and how human rights frameworks can inform climate action. The lower number of documents suggests that this interdisciplinary field is still in its early stages, requiring more focused research in order to fully understand and address the complex interactions between human rights and the right to climate. The data also indicate that this intriguing intersection with human rights would also be influenced by the increasing frequency and severity of extreme weather events and the growing awareness of climate change’s impact on human rights. The number of documents in the HR & RC category points to significant research gaps, highlighting the need for increased scholarly attention in this intersectional area. Addressing these gaps would be crucial for developing comprehensive strategies that integrate human rights into climate policies and actions. This also represents an opportunity for policymakers and researchers to prioritize this intersectional area in order to develop robust frameworks that protect human rights in the face of climate change.

The Figure 1 resents bibliometric data from Scopus derived using the keyword human rights, “HR”, up to 2024. The number of documents published annually is shown in Figure 1a. The data reveal a significant increase in the number of documents over time, with notable growth starting around the year 2000, indicating a substantial rise in research activity related to human rights. There are three significant points in the data shown. There are two clear inflection points, with a marked increase in interest during the 1990s and another around 2016, where the number of documents per year (NDPY) starts to increase exponentially. The plot also shows a maximum followed by a dramatic decrease in the NDPY around 2010. These increases/decreases suggest that such trends are due to specific events related to human rights. In this context, it is worth mentioning that the 1990s saw a significant rise in interest, likely driven by the end of the Cold War and the subsequent global focus on democratization and human rights. Around 2016, there was another notable increase in research activity, possibly due to the growing global awareness of issues such as climate justice, the rights of migrants and refugees, and the impact of technology on privacy and surveillance. The peak in the number of publications around 2010, followed by a sharp decline, could be attributed to the global financial crisis of 2008–2009, which significantly impacted research funding and priorities, leading to fluctuations in publication trends. The observed trends in human rights research are likely influenced by specific events and broader trends in the field, such as the increasing recognition of the interconnection between human rights and climate change, the rise of digital rights, or the ongoing struggles for equality and justice for marginalized communities (Limon 2010). Thus, the presented bibliometric data provide a comprehensive understanding of the trends in human rights research activity over the past few decades. For its part, Figure 1b categorizes the types of documents published, represented in a pie chart with each share corresponding to a different type of document. As observed, most of the publications are articles, and these constitute 84%. Finally, Figure 1c provides a map chart with the top ten countries contributing to the publications in the field, with a distinction between the top three (highlighted in orange) and the remaining seven (in dark blue). The top three countries are the United States, the United Kingdom, and Japan, while the other top countries include Germany, Italy, Canada, China, France, Australia and Netherlands.

Figure 2 shows the summary of the bibliometric data from Scopus using the keyword “right to climate” (RC) up to 2024. The number of documents published annually is shown in Figure 2a. The data reveal similar trends to those observed when the HR keyword was employed, with a significant increase in the number of documents over time and notable growth starting around the year 2000, indicating a substantial rise in research activity related to RC. However, the NDPY for RC reached 50,000, which is significantly less than those obtained when HR was used as a keyword. Figure 2b categorizes the types of documents published, represented in a pie chart with each share corresponding to a different type of document. As observed, most of the publications are articles, constituting 77%. Finally, Figure 2c provides a map chart with the top ten countries contributing to the publications in the field, with a distinction between the top three (highlighted in orange) and the remaining seven (in dark blue). The top three countries are the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. It is interesting to note that the same top ten countries were obtained for the HR keyword, but the top three countries leading the table changed slightly, while the United States remained the leader.

Figure 3 shows the bibliometric data derived from Scopus using the combined keywords human rights (HR) and right to climate (RC) up to 2024. The NDPY is shown in Figure 3a. The data reveal a significant increase in the NDPY over the studied time starting around the year 2000. However, the NDPY for the combined keywords reached around 10,000, which is significantly lower than those obtained when HR and RC were used as single keywords. Figure 3b categorizes the types of documents published, represented in a pie chart with each share corresponding to a different type of document. As observed, most of the publications are articles, constituting 65%. Finally, Figure 3c provides a map chart, with the top ten countries contributing to the publications in the field, with a distinction between the top three (highlighted in orange) and the remaining seven (in dark blue). The top three countries are the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom. It is interesting to note that the same top ten countries were obtained for the HR or RC keywords, but the top three countries leading the table changed slightly, while the United States remained the leader.

Table 2. Top 10 institutions funding research on human rights and the right to climate.

	HR	RC	HR & RC
1	National Institutes of Health	National Science Foundation	National Science Foundation
2	National Cancer Institute	European Commission	European Commission
3	National Natural Science Foundation of China	Natural Environment Research Council	National Natural Science Foundation of China
4	National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute	National Natural Science Foundation of China	National Institutes of Health
5	U.S. Department of Health and Human Services	Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft	Natural Environment Research Council
6	National Institute of Mental Health	Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada	Australian Research Council
7	National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases	National Aeronautics and Space Administration	Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
8	Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft	Seventh Framework Programme	Seventh Framework Programme
9	Medical Research Council	National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration	Economic and Social Research Council
10	Japan Society for the Promotion of Science	U.S. Department of Energy	National Aeronautics and Space Administration

highlights the top 10 institutions funding research on human rights (HR) and the right to climate (RC), highlighting a diverse array of national and international bodies. The National Science Foundation, European Commission, and National Natural Science Foundation of China are prominent across all categories, indicating their significant investment in both human rights and climate research. Government agencies such as the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health also play crucial roles, emphasizing the public sector’s commitment. Additionally, specialized research councils like the Natural Environment Research Council and Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft have shown targeted funding efforts. This diverse funding landscape reflects a global and interdisciplinary approach to addressing the interconnected challenges of climate and human rights.

As demonstrated through the bibliometric data, the first major shift, termed the “Decade of Human Rights Awakening” (1990–2000), saw pivotal events such as the establishment of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights and the adoption of the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action in 1993. These milestones sparked global advocacy, with grassroots movements, NGOs, and international organizations uniting to promote human rights. Interest in human rights surged throughout the 1990s but waned until the 2010s. The “Decade of Human Rights Advocacy” (2010–2020) marked a resurgence, driven by the digital revolution and global movements like the Arab Spring, Occupy Wall Street, and Black Lives Matter. Social media amplified activism, while figures like Greta Thunberg and Malala Yousafzai highlighted climate justice and girls’ education. Thus, all these results suggest that such landmark treaties, including the UN Sustainable Development Goals and the Paris Agreement, further advanced human rights and environmental justice (Bodansky 2016; Melley 2024; United Nations 1993, 2017).

5. Intensification of Extreme Events as a Catalyst for the Recognizing of the Right to Climate as a Human Right

The intensification of extreme weather events due to climate change has become a powerful catalyst for the recognition of the right to climate as a fundamental human right. As communities around the world face increasingly frequent and severe storms, heatwaves, droughts, and floods, the direct impact on human lives and livelihoods has brought the issue of climate change from an abstract environmental concern to an immediate threat to basic human rights. This shift in perspective has led to growing calls for legal frameworks that explicitly recognize the right to a stable climate as essential for the enjoyment of other established human rights, such as the rights to life, health, food, and shelter. The mounting evidence of climate-related disasters and their disproportionate effects on vulnerable populations has strengthened arguments for enshrining climate protection in human rights law, pushing governments and international bodies to consider new legal approaches to address the climate crisis.

5.1. Interconnection between Human Rights, Right to Climate and the Intensification of Extreme Weather Events

As mentioned earlier, the formal recognition of the right to climate in response to growing scientific concerns about climate change and its impact on human rights and the environment would be highly beneficial for humanity (Anisah and Hadi 2023). Therefore, this section focuses on analyzing the impacts of climate change and extreme weather phenomena on fundamental human rights, recognizing the undeniable connection between the right to climate, climate justice, and the urgent need to take measures to mitigate climate change. This phenomenon not only affects the environment but also has profound implications for human well-being and the protection of fundamental rights. In this context, climate change has devastating effects on several essential human rights, which are mentioned below:

• The right to life, due to the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as storms, floods, and heatwaves, which put the lives of millions of people at risk. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that between 2030 and 2050, climate change will cause approximately 250,000 additional deaths per year due to malnutrition, malaria, diarrhea, and heat stress (Luporini and Kodiveri 2021; Luporini and Savaresi 2023; World Health Organization 2023; Solntsev 2024);
• The right to health is also severely affected. Extreme weather events impact people’s physical and mental health. Heatwaves can cause heat-related illnesses and deaths, while floods can spread waterborne diseases (Wewerinke-Singh and Doebbler 2022; World Health Organization 2023);
• The right to food is at risk because climate change affects agricultural production, which can lead to food insecurity. Droughts and floods can destroy crops, reduce food availability, and increase prices, especially affecting poorer communities (Rueda Abad and Vargas Castilleja 2021);
• The rights to water and sanitation is another human right that is compromised as the availability of drinking water is affected by climate change. Prolonged droughts and water contamination due to floods affect access to clean and safe water (Aller and Luis Romero 2015). The importance of clean water in sustaining human life and promoting health is also crucial. Indeed, water contamination remains a pressing issue worldwide. Anthropogenic activities, including urbanization, industrial processes, and agricultural practices, significantly contribute to water pollution (Babuji et al. 2023; Adeosun et al. 2016; Negrete-Bolagay et al. 2021; Zamora-Ledezma et al. 2021);
• The right to housing is in danger, as natural disasters destroy homes and displace entire communities. Rising sea levels threaten to flood coastal areas, forcing people to abandon their homes (Cooper et al. 2018).

Further, the impact of climate change is not uniform, as it disproportionately affects the most vulnerable groups. Poor populations often live in areas more susceptible to extreme weather events and lack the resources needed to adapt to or recover from these events. On the one hand, women and children face greater risks due to their lower access to resources and services and the additional responsibilities they assume during and after disasters. On the other hand, indigenous communities, which rely heavily on their natural environment for their livelihood and culture, see their territories and traditional ways of life threatened (Rueda Abad and Vargas Castilleja 2021).

The concern about the impact of extreme weather events is reflected in resolutions such as 29/15, 32/33, and 44/7 of the Human Rights Council (UNHRC), which state that the contribution of climate change to unexpected natural disasters results in consequences that prevent the full realization of these human rights (United Nations 2015, 2016a, 2020). This issue is also debated in roundtable discussions, according to report A/HRC/52/48 of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, which highlights the adverse effects of climate change on the full and effective enjoyment of human rights by vulnerable people (United Nations 2022b).

Similarly, report A/77/226 of the special report on the promotion and protection of human rights in the context of climate change emphasizes the interconnection between climate change and human rights. This report emphasizes the need for urgent and equitable action to mitigate the effects of this phenomenon. Further, the importance of addressing the losses and damages caused by climate change and ensuring inclusive participation in decision-making processes is promoted within this document (United Nations 2022a).

The report “The human right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment: a catalyst for accelerating the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals” (A/77/284) also highlights the importance of the right to a stable climate as an essential component of the right to a healthy environment. This right includes both substantive and procedural components. Among the substantive components are access to a stable climate, which is crucial for human health and well-being, as well as protection against the negative impacts of climate change. The procedural components, on the other hand, encompass access to environmental information, public participation in decision making on climate policies, and access to justice to seek redress in cases of violations of climate-related rights. These elements are fundamental to ensuring that all people can enjoy a safe and sustainable environment, and act as a catalyst to accelerate the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals by comprehensively addressing climate and development challenges. In this way, the right to climate would be rendered a human right, requiring urgent and effective measures to be taken by states in order to mitigate the effects of climate change and ensure a sustainable future for present and future generations (United Nations 2022c).

Further, United Nations General Assembly Resolution 76/300, which recognizes the human right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment, is of crucial importance in the context of the emerging right to climate. This resolution marks a significant milestone by elevating environmental protection to the status of a universal human right, strengthening the legal basis for addressing the climate crisis. By establishing this explicit link between human rights and the environment, the resolution provides a more robust framework for individuals and communities to demand concrete actions against climate change and environmental degradation. Furthermore, this declaration can encourage countries to incorporate the right to a healthy environment into their national constitutions and legislation, thus facilitating the implementation of more ambitious climate policies and legal protection for environmental defenders. In essence, Resolution 76/300 reinforces the idea that a stable climate and a healthy environment are fundamental to the enjoyment of all other human rights, laying the groundwork for more effective and just climate action at a global level (United Nations 2022d).

It is also important that the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 can be seen as a significant instrument in addressing the interplay between climate change, extreme weather events, and human rights. This Framework acknowledges climate change as a key driver of disaster risk and emphasizes the need for comprehensive measures to mitigate these risks, thereby supporting the right to a safe and healthy environment. It aims to achieve a substantial reduction in disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods, health, and various assets over a 15-year period (Busayo et al. 2020). The framework also outlines seven global targets, including reducing disaster mortality, the number of affected people, economic losses, and damage to critical infrastructure, while increasing the number of countries with disaster risk reduction strategies, enhancing international cooperation, and improving access to early warning systems. These targets align with the right to climate by promoting actions that protect individuals and communities from climate-related hazards (Patel et al. 2021). The four priorities for action are understanding disaster risk, strengthening disaster risk governance, investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience, and enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and recovery. These priorities emphasize the need for a complete understanding of disaster risk, including vulnerability, capacity, and exposure, and call for improved governance and investment in resilience. This approach supports the right to climate by ensuring that disaster risk reduction measures are integrated into broader climate action strategies (Mavhura and Raj Aryal 2023). The Framework also promotes an inclusive approach, engaging all sectors of society, including vulnerable groups, in disaster risk reduction efforts. This inclusivity aligns with climate justice principles, ensuring that all people’s rights are considered in managing climate and disaster risks. Additionally, the emphasis on coherence between disaster risk reduction and sustainable development policies supports the right to development in a climate-resilient manner (Maly and Suppasri 2020). Overall, the Sendai Framework represents a comprehensive and inclusive approach to disaster risk reduction, aiming to build resilience and reduce vulnerabilities across all sectors and levels of society. It provides a foundation for integrating climate change considerations into disaster risk management, thereby supporting the protection of human rights in the face of increasing climate-related hazards (Busayo et al. 2020; Mavhura and Raj Aryal 2023; Patel et al. 2021). However, the framework has faced criticism for its technocratic approach, which relies heavily on scientific and technological solutions without adequately addressing the underlying social, economic, and political factors that contribute to vulnerability and disaster risk. This approach may paradoxically increase people’s vulnerability by neglecting the human decisions and structural issues that underlie disaster risks. Critics argue that the framework falls short in addressing smaller, localized hazards and in strengthening emergency response capacities. Additionally, there are concerns about the insufficient integration of gender perspectives and the inadequate addressing of gender inequality, which is a significant driver of disaster risk. These criticisms highlight the need for a more holistic approach that incorporates social justice and equity considerations into disaster risk reduction efforts, and addresses the root causes of vulnerability rather than focusing solely on technical solutions (Maly and Suppasri 2020).

All of the above discussion underlines the connection between human rights and the right to a stable climate, highlighting the urgent need for effective and equitable climate action. In this sense, states must adopt ambitious measures to mitigate climate change and protect the human rights of all people, especially the most vulnerable. Integrating a human rights approach into climate policies is not only an ethical and legal imperative but can also enhance the effectiveness of climate actions and generate broader benefits for society. Figure 4 illustrate the interconnection between human rights, right to climate, and the intensification of extreme weather events.

Case Study: Cumbre Vieja Volcano

In view of all of the facts regarding the direct interlink between human rights, the right to climate, and the intensification of extreme weather events, in this section, we discuss a case study—specifically, the volcanic eruption of the Cumbre Vieja volcano in La Palma (Spain). After a thorough examination of the relevant literature, it becomes evident that a substantial number of scientific scholars attribute volcanic activity to intrinsic natural processes. However, the literature also reveals several related studies opposed to this theory, including one focused on the Santorini volcano (Satow et al. 2021). In this particular study, the authors claims that a decrease in sea level increases volcanic eruptions, whereas rising sea levels correspond to a decline in volcanic activity (Satow et al. 2021). Furthermore, Gargani J. previously reported the impact of sea level and coastal vertical movements on the Mayotte volcano, situated in the Comoros archipelago (Gargani 2023). Notably, the authors not only propose a direct influence of sea level on volcanic activity but also emphasize its significant contribution to vertical shifts in the natural landscape (Gargani 2023). Surprisingly, the potential response of volcanic activity to sea level fluctuations remains unanalyzed for Mayotte (Gargani 2023). More recently, Jicha et al. proposed that sea level falls also act as trigger mechanisms for the youngest rejuvenated volcanoes in the Koko Rift Zone on the island of Oahu, Hawaii (Jicha et al. 2023). Their findings indicate that Koko Rift eruptions coincided with an approximately 100-m sea level drop during Marine Isotope Stage 4, leading them to conclude that such sea level changes likely triggered the magmatic eruptions in the Koko Rift (Jicha et al. 2023). Similarly, Sternai et al., in a collaborative study involving earth science researchers from the Jaume Almera Institute of Earth Sciences, the University of Geneva, the University of Orléans, and the Pierre and Marie Curie University, associated the salinity crisis with significant sea level changes (Sternai et al. 2017). The authors identified such abrupt shifts in sea level as a key factor contributing to the observed increase in volcanic activity in the Mediterranean basin during that period (Sternai et al. 2017). Likewise, Dietmar Müller also reported that the sea level has been decreasing, and probably will continue to decrease in the long term (Müller et al. 2008). Thus, despite climate changes and the fact that glaciers have a natural tendency to grow, sea levels are expected to decrease (Müller et al. 2008; Swindles et al. 2018). For instance, the study conducted by Swindles et al. highlights that the escalation of anthropogenic activities has led to a progressive increase in glacier melting, significantly impacting volcanic activity rates (Swindles et al. 2018). Their empirical evidence establishes a correlation between the frequency of volcanic eruptions and glacier extension during the Holocene (Swindles et al. 2018). Similarly, Cooper et al. asserted in their research that global temperature fluctuations can influence the occurrence of large-scale volcanic eruptions, primarily through deglaciation processes (Cooper et al. 2018). In a similar manner, even though the emission of greenhouse gases provokes concomitant and progressive sea level increases, in the long term, these levels will tend to decrease. All these facts suggest that this instability could promote an increase in volcanic activity on the planet, because decreases in sea levels especially affect volcano activity when the variation is greater than 40 m (Satow et al. 2021).

While it may seem unconventional to consider the interplay between human rights, climate, and volcanoes, the intensification of extreme weather events, as exemplified by the eruption on Isla de la Palma, Spain, forces us to contemplate the far-reaching consequences of such events. Beyond reflection, these occurrences encourage us to seek solutions that offer a measure of security to populations living in the shadows of these geological formations.

All the reported studies underline the intricate relationship between anthropogenic development and glacier melting driven by global warming, resulting in sea level changes, as well as their indirect impact on volcanic activity. Consequently, these issues not only encourage legal solutions but also emphasize the social imperative, especially considering the Canarian population’s vulnerability and the ecosystems that surround them. As far as the impact of climate change on the increased frequency of volcanic eruptions is concerned, it is evident that humanity is at a critical juncture (a point of no return). The unmistakable consequences of climate change are ubiquitous, suggesting the urgent need to raise awareness about the impacts of anthropogenic activities on the environment. Indeed, the recent eruption of the Cumbre Vieja volcano in La Palma (Spain) has demonstrated how volcanic eruptions, in their own way, reclaim territory via a gradual process that mirrors the encroachment of humans upon their space. It is noteworthy that the term “intensification of extreme weather events” was incorporated into the present study, as its inclusion is derived from the observation that the time intervals between comparable extreme weather events have decreased over time.

Table 3. Most recent and relevant volcanic eruptions in the past 5 years, compiled from references (Ingeoexpert 2018).

Volcanic Eruption	Country	Year
Anak Krakatoa	Indonesia	2018
Kilauea	Hawaii Island	2018
Volcán de Fuego	Guatemala	2018
Whakaari	New Zealand	2019
Stromboli	Italy	2019
Sinabung	Indonesia	2019
Taal	Philippines	2020
Cumbre Vieja	Spain	2021
Nyiragongo	Democratic Republic of Congo	2021
La Soufriere	St. Vincent and the Grenadines	2021
Fagradalsfjall	Iceland	2021
Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai	Tonga	2022
Fagradalsfjall	Iceland	2023
Sundhnúkur	Iceland	2024

provides a concise overview of the most significant recent volcanic eruptions, serving as illustrative examples. These eruptions stress the persistent nature of volcanic activity, regardless of the time period in question, and their frequency likely shows a direct correlation with the mysterious forces shaping the ever-changing climate.

The eruption of the Cumbre Vieja volcano has unveiled the transformative might of our planet, juxtaposed against humanity’s fragility and dependence. As a matter of fact, most of the population seems powerless, merely observers, as volcanic activity has the power to destroy everything in its path. John Holloway, in his contemplation of volcanoes, famously asserted that “above all, the volcano is a constant witness to repressed forces” (Arnaud et al. 2021). In autumn 2021, the Geological and Mining Institute of Spain published on its website a report taken from the Scientific Committee of the Canary Islands Volcanic Emergency Plan (PEVOLCA), which indicated the final date of the Cumbre Vieja volcano eruption that lasted 85 days and 8 h (Special Plan for Civil Protection and Emergency Response due to Volcanic Risk in the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands (PEVOLCA) 2021). This is the longest eruption in the history of the island, exceeding by far the eruption in 1585 of the Tehuya volcano, considered one of the most devastating natural calamities in the region at that time (Bright and Buhmann 2021; Carracedo et al. 1999a; Carracedo et al. 1999b; Instituto Geografico Nacional 2022). Fortunately, and thanks to the fact that experts warned about a series of seismic events on the island days before the eruption, the evacuation of many of its inhabitants was successfully carried out. As a consequence of the aforementioned volcanic eruption, the Government of the Canary Islands reported that the damage caused by the natural event reached more than EUR 842 million, including damage to road infrastructure (EUR 228 million), crops/production losses (over EUR 200 million), and the destruction of buildings (EUR 165 million) (Government of the Canary Islands 2021). Accordingly, the Spanish government declared the Isla de la Palma as a catastrophic area, and decided to approve EUR 224 million in financial aid to facilitate the restoration of the damage and to promote the economic and social recovery of the island of La Palma (Government of the Canary Islands 2022). These measures included the acquisition of new houses for people affected by the volcano, subsidies for the agricultural sector, and subsidies for the recovery of biodiversity and protected natural areas (royal order RD—law 20/2021, of 5 October and RD—law 28/2021, of 17 December). Evidently, all these initiatives were crucial to the economic and social recovery of the Island. Unfortunately, despite the devastation caused by the volcanic eruption on La Palma, several of the government’s promises remain unfulfilled up to fall 2023. Indeed, two years have passed, and the islanders are still waiting for the aid and support that the local and national governments promised. The announced construction of 20,000 social homes has yet to materialize, leaving the affected community in a state of uncertainty. As the impact of the volcano persists, the absence of concrete action on the part of the authorities raises concerns about the region’s resilience and recovery (Asunción 2023; El Debate 2023). The non-materialization of government aid can be attributed to several factors. Often, there is inadequate monitoring and accountability, leading to promised aid not reaching its intended recipients. Bureaucracy, administrative hurdles, and slow decision making contribute to inefficiencies in aid distribution. Additionally, changing priorities, due to political, economic, or social factors, can shift attention away from aid commitments. Budget constraints pose another challenge to local and national governments, as limited financial resources may hinder the fulfillment of promises. Moreover, a lack of political understanding between local, regional, and national governments, political will, or commitment can prevent the necessary follow-through. Another key factor influencing the unfulfillment of aid promises has been inadequate data and planning, as well as dependency on external factors such as global economic conditions, which further complicate aid delivery. Addressing these challenges requires transparency, improved coordination, and a genuine commitment to fulfilling aid promises (Asunción 2023; El Debate 2023).

Concerning the environmental consequences of this type of natural disaster, the PEVOLCA Scientific Committee Report indicates that the volcano’s release of emissions into the atmosphere was enormous (Plan Especial de Protección Civil y Atención de Emergencias por riesgo volcánico en la Comunidad Autónoma de Canarias (PEVOLCA) 2021). Indeed, the amount of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) emitted by the volcano was approximately two million tons (Milford et al. 2023). These emissions reached North Africa and the Caribbean (Calle Aguirre 2021). Such an amount of released gas is much higher than the total anthropogenic SO₂ emitted by the 27 countries of the European Union throughout 2019 (DW News 2021; Milford et al. 2023). The emission of this large amount of SO₂ into the atmosphere has been associated with major global impacts on aviation, climate, air quality, the biosphere, and health and on the terrestrial, marine, and freshwater ecosystems (Bronte-Moreno et al. 2023; Fioletov et al. 2023; Milford et al. 2023; Musa et al. 2023; Paez et al. 2021).

As far as the island of La Palma is concerned, the latter consequences have been suffered at the local and regional levels. It has been reported that excessive concentrations of SO₂ located in a certain area would have harmful consequences for life and health (Milford et al. 2023; Morales Vargas and Liao Lee 1999; Volcano Active Foundation 2022). Therefore, an eruption like the aforementioned could cause a lot of severe damage. Considering that the Isla de la Palma is a volcanic area by nature, it should have more resources, including but not limited to legal instruments, to protect its vulnerable population against this type of unexpected extreme weather event. Indeed, this type of phenomenon can have diverse consequences, including alterations across various ecosystem levels. Hence, the eruption of the volcano has had effects not only on the standards of living and the health of the Canarian population but also on the environment, since the lava buried many hectares of land, affecting the existing flora and fauna. In addition to this, as the lava ended up in the sea, it caused changes in the temperature of the water, as well as its sensory properties, color, etc., affecting the living conditions of the organisms therein. As a matter of fact, depending on the magnitude of theses extreme weather events, these effects can extend to areas adjacent to the volcano or even farther, including other islands, countries, regions, and continents. Consequently, the ultimate impact is often global. These facts underline the critical importance of taking proactive measures to mitigate the consequences when faced with such catastrophes (Milford et al. 2023; Morales Vargas and Liao Lee 1999; Volcano Active Foundation 2022).

To contextualize these ideas, the case study of the volcanic eruption on La Palma illustrates the reality of similar extreme weather events. It also stresses the lack of awareness and decisive actions to safeguard the climate, aiming to prevent or significantly reduce the frequency of such calamities. Notably, while most of the aid promised to address the volcano’s impact was primarily focused on meeting basic rights for the islanders, there was a conspicuous absence of concern regarding the environmental repercussions. The implementation of tools to protect the climate, such as the right to climate, was notably overlooked. As a reflection, despite well-established government assistance in addressing the consequences of extreme weather events, some promises made by governments remain unfulfilled even years later. Consequently, implementing concrete climate protection measures remains a challenging task. It is evident that without a robust legal framework to strengthen these efforts, their effectiveness is likely to fall short.

6. Recognition of the Right to Climate as a Human Right: An Imperative for Climate Justice

The right to climate as an innovative concept not yet formally enacted, but whose relevance is becoming increasingly evident, deserves special and urgent attention. There is an undeniable relationship between human rights, the right to climate and the intensification of extreme weather events. This interconnection underlines the urgency of addressing the climate crisis from a human rights-based perspective. Anchored on these premises, a viable proposal for the enactment of the right to climate must begin with its explicit recognition as a human right. This recognition would pave the way for developing a robust legal framework that protects individuals and communities from the adverse impacts of climate change, while promoting effective actions to mitigate its causes and adapt to its consequences.

Enactment of the Human Rights to Water and Sanitation (HRWS) as a Case Study

A very interesting precedent in this context is the enactment of the human rights to water and sanitation (HRWS) (Wahi 2022). Indeed, the current proposal to recognize the right to climate (RC) as a human right (HR) prior to its enactment is based on the earlier establishment of the HRWS. Therefore, it is imperative to assess the foundation of the declaration by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly of the human rights to water and sanitation (United Nations 2010). This declaration was primarily based on the necessity of ensuring fundamental conditions for human life and dignity. The Assembly argued that this right stems from the right to an adequate standard of living, as established in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and is closely linked to other fundamental rights such as health, food, and housing. The Assembly also expressed its concern regarding the lack of access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation for millions of people, which severely impacts their health and development. Furthermore, it emphasized the responsibility of states to guarantee these rights, and highlighted the importance of international cooperation in supporting developing countries to provide safe, accessible, and affordable water and sanitation services for all. This recognition, in 2010, consolidated previous efforts and established a legal and moral framework for the global implementation of these rights (United Nations 2010).

Considering this context, let us imagine the climate system as a dynamic interplay of the following five interconnected elements: atmosphere (i.e., air), oceans, cryosphere (i.e., ice and permafrost), land surface, and biosphere (i.e., living organisms). All these components, when fused, determine the proper functioning of various natural processes, such as the hydrological cycle (Davies and Simonovic 2005). Therefore, when the climate becomes warmer and contains more moisture than cold air, the air absorbs more water from oceans, lakes, soils, and plants. This could negatively affect the supply of drinking water throughout the planet, especially in the most vulnerable areas (Aquae Fundación 2024). This relationship between the hydrological and climatic systems, although autonomous, is closely linked, and should be associated with the basic needs of human beings. Considering this situation, the resolution 64/292 addresses the seriousness of the lack of access to drinking water, but it is contradictory that, to date, we have not managed to stop the brutal consequences of climate change, drought being one of them (United Nations 2010). By making this comparison, people can recognize the imperative of establishing a parallel between the right to climate and social rights. These rights aim to address the moral imperative of ensuring people’s fundamental needs. Moreover, if these needs remain unmet, human beings may find themselves unable to fully exercise their freedoms (Pérez 2007). In this sense, it is evident that a healthy climate is a human need. In addition to this, it is well known that anthropogenic emissions are responsible for violent changes in the global climate, which forces us to think about alternatives that will help alleviate the instability in global temperatures. In addition, it is necessary to urge human beings to take decisive action on the part of the climate that will help in returning the environment to its natural balance (Méndez Rocasolano 2019). Figure 5 shows a sketch of the most relevant facts related to the enactment of the human rights to water and sanitation (WRWS).

The devastating effects of climate change on the entire range of human rights have promoted demands for climate protection around the world (Andrea Lozano Barragán et al. v the Presidency of the Republic et al. STC4360-2018 2018; Climate Case Urgenda. 19/00135 2019; Kelsey Cascada Rose Juliana et al. v United States of America. 6:15-cv-01517-TC, 18-36082 2016). These cases invite us to consider the emerging needs that human beings advocate for and that require urgent attention. On the one hand, it can help us develop human rights norms by applying adaptation obligations like those used in the climate regime.

The obligation to provide financing and technology to aid in adaptation, as well as to cooperate, could also be considered as a way out of this problem, because, in accordance with international law, international treaties offer the means to interpret adaptation obligations (Nishimura 2022). Thus, the enactment of a new human right to climate poses significant challenges, not only in terms of its establishment but also in the application of new rules to make it effective. Despite these issues, which are addressable, the enactment of this right offers new possibilities and hopes in the fight against climate change. It would be a tool to fully guarantee human rights, invoking so-called climate justice, and strengthening the set of human rights norms through the development of clear guidelines and the imposition of specific obligations on states relating to climate change.

7. Analyses, Discussion, and Preliminary Insights

The right to climate is based on an innovative and necessary approach at the intersection of environmental law and human rights. Providing a legal perspective on the crucial relationship between the right to climate, human rights, and extreme events, with the goal of including this right within the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, it represents a real challenge. Thus, assessing the eruption of the Cumbre Vieja Volcano as a practical case could be useful in allowing the exploration of the complex relationship between natural phenomena, climate change, and human rights. Although volcanic activity is a natural process, the academic literature suggests a possible influence of climate change on the frequency of such events, underlining the interconnection of these phenomena.

A fundamental aspect of the present work lies in analyzing the historical evolution of the recognition of the relationship between climate change and human rights. Since 2007, the Human Rights Council has recognized this connection, culminating in the 2015 Paris Agreement. However, the study points out that this agreement, although significant, fell short in its approach, revealing states’ reluctance to prioritize human rights in climate change discussions. The present work intends to underline the approach of this agreement, wherein the right to climate was recognized as a human right. Indeed, the current proposal to recognize the right to climate (RC) as a human right (HR) prior to its enactment is based on the earlier establishment of the human rights to water and sanitation (HRWS) (United Nations 2010). This comparison highlights the inherent connection between human rights and climate change, providing a compelling path toward implementing this transformative legal tool. The analysis also underlines that recognizing climate as a potential human right would serve as a vital tool for the full realization of all human rights. This perspective aligns with the notion that a healthy environment is inseparable from a climate that ensures the well-being of present and future generations.

The legal and practical complexities of implementing such a right to climate include issues of causality, attribution, legitimacy, and jurisdiction. These considerations are crucial for the effective presentation of climate-related claims before courts, especially in the European context. This roadmap would serve not only to promote climate protection and raise awareness but also to ensure that human rights are intrinsically linked to climate change-related actions.

8. Conclusions

The right to climate concept is being consolidated as a fundamental human right based on the premise that all individuals have the right to a stable and safe climate. The intensification of extreme weather events, such as heat waves, droughts, floods, forest fires, and volcanic activity, could be related to anthropogenic climate change and represents a significant threat to this right. From the perspective of this right to climate concept, the demand for environmental protection measures is based on the obligation of states to protect their citizens from the negative impacts of climate change. These extreme events not only endanger the right to a stable climate but also affect other fundamental human rights, such as the rights to life, health, housing, food, and drinking water. Therefore, the implementation of measures for climate protection becomes a legal and ethical obligation for governments. The possible state obligations under the RC would include mitigation actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, adaptation measures to increase community resilience to extreme events, and the protection of ecosystems that act as natural barriers. In addition, states must guarantee access to information on climate risks and promote citizen participation in environmental decision making. The necessary environmental protection measures include a wide range of actions, from accelerated transition to renewable energies to strengthening climate-resilient infrastructures, with the restoration and conservation of ecosystems and the improvement in early warning and disaster management systems. These measures must be implemented while considering the principles of climate justice and equity, recognizing that the impacts of extreme events do not affect everyone equally and that the most vulnerable populations are often the most affected. The private sector also has a crucial role to play in the potential enactment of the right to climate, by implementing sustainable practices, reducing emissions, and supporting community resilience to extreme events. The intensification of these events represents both a challenge and an opportunity to strengthen the right to climate, as it evidences the consequences of inaction and can catalyze greater awareness and political will to implement ambitious environmental protection measures. In short, the present work intends to promote the urgent need to address the climate crisis via a human rights approach. Climate protection has become a legal and ethical imperative in order to safeguard all fundamental rights. The intensification of extreme weather events highlights the importance of implementing comprehensive and effective protection measures that mitigate the impacts of climate change, strengthen the adaptive capacity of societies, and protect the fundamental human rights of present and future generations.