Impact Analysis of a Building Collapse Caused by a Rainfall-Induced Landslide in Kerala, India
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Rainfall-Induced Landslides in Kerala State
2. Building Failure in Peringavu
3. Rainfall
4. Geomorphology of the Study Area
5. Geotechnical Characterization
6. Ring Shear—Consolidated Drained Test
7. Slope Stability and Failure Mechanism: Numerical Approach
7.1. Analysis of the Cut Slope
7.2. Boundary Conditions
7.3. Infiltration Analysis—Unsaturated Soil Strength Parameters
7.4. Analysis of Rainfall Events on the Vertical Cut Slope
8. Impact Analysis
8.1. Determination of the Impact Load
8.2. Mesh Convergence Analysis
8.3. Building Settlement Analysis
8.4. Flexural Strength of Beam Elements
8.5. Performance of Load-Bearing Walls under Impact Load
9. Elucidation of Risk to the Built Environment
10. Results and Conclusions
- The laboratory experiments and geotechnical characterization revealed that sandy silt (ML) was present at the failure surface. This soil type has low to moderate permeability.
- The Peringavu landslide is in the midland region and it is associated with flat-top laterite fields and hillocks. The thick laterite soil deposits and charnockite rocks indicate the intense weathering process at the location. The higher-grade weathering of Charnockite rock has produced laterite soil to great depth.
- The first-stage rainfall analysis, low rainfall intensity, was applied for 61 days. The matric suction of the soil in the top layer was observed to be greater, and hence the results of the analysis indicated a high factor of safety values at the end of the first stage of rainfall analysis.
- The second-stage rainfall analysis results were based on moderate intensity rainfall for ten days, which highlights the importance of antecedent rainfall statistics in the analysis and its influence on the factor of safety of the slope.
- The final stage analysis of the rainfall event included the highly intense rainfall. The high-intensity rainfall on the last day increased the soil degree of saturation to higher percentages. The higher degree of saturation on the slope and the consequent reduction in the soil matric suction and progressive development of pore pressure led to the reduction in the factor of safety values. Thus, the landslide occurred and led to the building collapse. The results obtained from numerical analysis are similar to the slope failure noticed in the field.
- The study explained the performance of the building as well as the behavior of structural members under the landslide impact. The destruction of the building due to landslide impact was explained by dynamic impact analysis with finite element analysis.
- The sudden impact loads of 428 kN/m (maximum) to 64 kN/m (minimum) were applied on the rear side load-bearing wall of the building at different heights. The beams and walls were severely affected by the impact thrust, resulting in the demolition of the building. The flexural strength of each beam doubled its design strength after the impact load. The building differential settlement observed from dynamic impact analysis was higher than the permissible limit.
- The differential settlement of the building was 92 mm, and the lateral displacement was 170 mm, indicating the demolition of the load-bearing structure. The bending moments of beams in the plinth portion and on the first floor were two times higher than the permissible limit after the impact load. The failure of structural elements (beams and walls) showed the destruction of the building.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Landslide Location | District | Event Date | Deaths |
---|---|---|---|
Padinjarethara(Kappikalam) | Wayanad | 19 June 1992 | 11 |
Pazhampallichal | Idukki | 21 July 1997 | 9 |
Pamba | Pathanamthitta | 15 January 1999 | 25 |
Amboori | Thiruvanthapuram | 9 November 2001 | 39 |
Nittukottamala | Kozhikode | 10 August 2004 | 10 |
Karinchola | Kozhikode | 14 June 2018 | 14 |
Nemmara | Palakkad | 16 August 2018 | 8 |
Upputhode | Idukki | 16 August 2018 | 4 |
Kavalappara | Malappuram | 8 August 2019 | 59 |
Puthumala, | Wayanad | 8 August 2019 | 17 |
Rajanmalai | Idukki | 7 August 2020 | 60 |
Koottickal | Kottayam | 17 October 2021 | 22 |
Kokkayar | Idukki | 17 October 2021 | 13 |
Month | January | February | March | April | May | June | July | August | September | October | November | December |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rainfall (mm) | 8.7 | 15.6 | 47.5 | 109.5 | 356.6 | 749.6 | 726.1 | 821.9 | 244.2 | 304.3 | 150 | 37.5 |
Property | Soil Sample-1 (Layer-1) | Soil Sample-2 (Layer-2) |
---|---|---|
Specific gravity | 2.57 | 2.54 |
Maximum Dry Unit Weight (kN/m3) | 18.86 | 19.1 |
Liquid limit (wl) (%) | 49 | 48 |
Plasticity Index (Ip)(%) | 18 | 15 |
Coefficient of Permeability (m/s) | 1.05 × 10−7 | 4.47 × 10−8 |
Residual friction angle (ϕm) | 20 | 22 |
Effective cohesion kN/m2 (c’) | 15 | 17 |
Soil type (USCS) | Sandy Silt (ML) | Sandy Silt (ML) |
Percentage of clay | 12.50% | 8.50% |
Percentage of silt | 39.00% | 43.00% |
Percentage of sand | 42.00% | 45.00% |
Percentage of gravel | 6.50% | 3.50% |
Property | Soil Sample-1 (Layer-1) | Soil Sample-2 (Layer-2) | |
---|---|---|---|
Air Entry Value (AEV)/Air entry Suction (kPa) | 36 | 39 | |
Saturated water content (ϴs) (%) | 51 | 53 | |
Residual water content (ϴr) (%) | 14.5 | 13.8 | |
SWCC fitting parameters | a | 36 | 39 |
n | 1.1695 | 1.1609 | |
m | 0.1450 | 0.1380 |
Parameters | Soil | Beam (Beam Element) | Wall (Plate Element) |
---|---|---|---|
Material | Sandy Silt (ML) | Concrete | Laterite brick wall |
Young’s modulus (MPa) | 14 | 25,000 | 25.1 |
Unit weight (kN/m3) | 19.1 | 25 | 19 |
Poisson’s ratio (μ) | 0.321 | 0.20 | 0.18 |
Residual Angle of friction (φ′) | 22° | - | - |
Effective Cohesion kN/m2 (c′) | 17 | - | - |
Thickness (mm) | - | - | 250 |
Dimensions | - | 230 mm × 250 mm | - |
S. No | Mesh Type | Number of Elements | Number of Nodes | Total Displacement (mm) | Total Settlement (mm) | Run Time (s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Very Coarse | 849 | 2626 | 80 | 22.1 | 68 |
2 | Coarse | 1399 | 3766 | 95 | 38.4 | 92 |
3 | Medium | 2829 | 7479 | 102 | 56.3 | 115 |
4 | Fine | 6226 | 13965 | 159 | 86.3 | 226 |
5 | Very Fine | 14848 | 30475 | 174 | 92.1 | 280 |
Floor Number | Beam Number | Allowed or Limiting Moment of Resistance Negative Moment Mu(lim) = 14 kN-m (At the End of Span) | Allowed or Limiting Moment of Resistance Positive Moment Mu(lim) = 21 kN-m (At Mid of Span) | Probable Failure State | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Before Landslide | After Landslide | Before Landslide | After Landslide | |||
Plinth Beams | 1 (At end) | 6.61 | 18.43 | 9.10 | 20.65 | Flexural failure |
2 | 6.01 | 17.58 | 10.35 | 25.34 | ||
3 (Middle span) | 11.01 | 18.41 | 14.22 | 29.48 | ||
4 (Middle span) | 10.53 | 17.94 | 13.65 | 28.40 | ||
5 | 7.25 | 18.32 | 12.54 | 22.63 | ||
6 (At end) | 5.18 | 18.11 | 7.27 | 20.63 | ||
1st-Floor Beams | 1 (At end) | 5.74 | 4.89 | 10.15 | 33.75 | Flexural Compression Failure Excessive deflection |
2 | 5.98 | 6.12 | 11.52 | 33.98 | ||
3 (Middle span) | 9.81 | 6.72 | 15.53 | 34.09 | ||
4 (Middle span) | 9.36 | 6.58 | 15.00 | 34.40 | ||
5 | 8.57 | 6.34 | 14.10 | 32.90 | ||
6 (At end) | 4.39 | 4.00 | 8.10 | 33.40 |
Structural Member | Structural Behavior | Permissible Limit | Actual Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Back wall (directly impacted by the landslide): Wall 1 | Flexural failure (out-of-plane behavior) | Longitudinal direction | 0.14 N/mm2 | 29.89 N/mm2 |
Vertical direction | 0.07 N/mm2 | 21.70 N/mm2 | ||
Side wall (adjacent to the rear side wall): Wall 2 | Shear failure (in-plane behavior) | 0.5 N/mm2 | 4.27 N/mm2 |
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Santhosh Kumar, V.; Chandrasekaran, S.S. Impact Analysis of a Building Collapse Caused by a Rainfall-Induced Landslide in Kerala, India. Buildings 2022, 12, 1395. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12091395
Santhosh Kumar V, Chandrasekaran SS. Impact Analysis of a Building Collapse Caused by a Rainfall-Induced Landslide in Kerala, India. Buildings. 2022; 12(9):1395. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12091395
Chicago/Turabian StyleSanthosh Kumar, Vaddepalli, and Sembulichampalayam Sennimalai Chandrasekaran. 2022. "Impact Analysis of a Building Collapse Caused by a Rainfall-Induced Landslide in Kerala, India" Buildings 12, no. 9: 1395. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12091395