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Article

Stabilization and Recycling of Sand in Pedestrian Walkways

by
Mazhar Hussain
1,*,
Hafida Zmamou
2,
Antony Provost
3,
Paula Andrea Higuera Romero
1,
Angélique Mahieu
1,
Nathalie Leblanc
2,
Daniel Levacher
4 and
Abdoulaye Kane
1,*
1
UniLaSalle-Ecole des Métiers de l’Environnement, Cyclann, Campus de Ker Lann, 35170 Bruz, France
2
UniLaSalle, Université d’Artois, EA7519—Transformations & Agro-Ressources, Normandie Université, 76130 Mont Saint Aignan, France
3
GENDROT TP, Z.A. de Bel-Air, 35320 Crevin, France
4
Unicaen, UMR 6143 CNRS—M2C, Normandie Université, 24 Rue des Tilleuls, 14000 Caen, France
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Buildings 2024, 14(1), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14010205
Submission received: 17 November 2023 / Revised: 3 January 2024 / Accepted: 10 January 2024 / Published: 12 January 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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Abstract

:
The production of construction and demolition waste (CDW) in urban areas is growing rapidly. While the storage and disposal of CDW waste is costly, its recovery can help to conserve natural resources. This study investigates the characteristics of recycled sand obtained from the processing of CDW waste and the possibility of its reuse for pedestrian pathways. Physico-chemical and mineralogical characteristics of the recycled sand were investigated for its reuse. The percentage of fine particles in sand (below 0.63 μm) is 2.8%. The grain size of sand fulfills the particle size requirement of French standards. The methylene blue value of sand is 0.05 g/100 g. The GTR classification of recycled sand is D2 which is insensitive to water and suitable for road applications. A mineralogical analysis of soil shows that quartz, albite and microcline are important minerals in recycled sand. XRF analysis shows that CaO and SiO2 are major oxides in the recycled sand. The characterization of sand was followed by a manufacturing of cylindrical specimens of sand to observe the compressive strength. Samples were compacted with dynamic compaction by applying the Proctor normal energy of 600 kN·m/m3. The compressive strength testing of specimens shows that non-stabilized sand samples have compressive strength around 0.1 MPa which is considerably lower for its reuse in pedestrian pathways and road applications. Due to the low bearing capacity of sand, recycled sand was stabilized with the addition of binders such as Rolac (hydraulic binder), ground-granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and ECOSOIL® (slag mixes) with different percentages of the binder ranging from 0 to 7% for the optimization of the binder and for economic efficiency. The compressive strength of sand samples increases with the increasing percentage of the binder. The increase in strength is more important with a higher percentage of binders (5%, 6% and 7%). At a 7% binder addition, specimens with Rolac, GGBS and ECOSOIL binders show the compressive strength of 1.2 MPa, 0.5 MPa and 0.5 MPa. At a 7% Rolac addition, specimens have a compressive strength higher than 1 MPa and meet the strength requirement for soil reuse in the foundation and subbase layers of roads with low traffic. The experimental work shows that recycled sand can replace conventional quarry sand for road applications and pathways with the addition of a local binder, which is an eco-friendly and economical practice.

1. Introduction

The building sector is one of the biggest consumers of natural resources and producers of construction and demolition (CDW) waste in France and all around the world. A huge quantity of construction and demolition waste is generated annually across the globe. The annual production of construction and demolition (CDW) waste in France is nearly 246.7 million tons [1]. CDW is mainly produced by building activities and the demolition of existing structures and waste from concrete manufacturing plants [2]. Every year, a significant amount of this waste is disposed of on land sites which is becoming costly and harmful to the environment due to its huge volume, leaching and soil pollution. In addition, the French government is focusing on decreasing the landfill disposal of construction and demolition waste. The Bretagne Region of France aims to have zero landfill by 2030 and zero waste by 2040 [3]. Furthermore, the French government implements extended producer responsibility for buildings by implementing a special tax for ecological contribution on construction companies to eliminate their waste [4].
Overconsumption of natural resources, including sand, is another challenge faced by the construction industry in France and Europe. Every year, nearly 40 to 50 billion tons of sand is used in the construction industry in France. Most of the sand is mined from quarries. The excessive use of sand in building and infrastructure projects is leading to its depletion [5]. The remoteness of quarries for mining sand from the urban areas increases their transportation cost and emission of greenhouse gases. Higher CO2 emissions, the use of nonrenewable resources and increasing costs of aggregates and sand have encouraged us to look for recycling construction and demolition waste.
The processing of CDW waste helps to produce recycled aggregate and sand. France produces nearly 28.1 million tons of recycled aggregate from construction and demolition waste annually [6]. In the Brittany region of France, nearly 0.2 million tons of recycled aggregate is produced annually, which is the lowest among all the regions of France [7]. In the Brittany region of France, 46% of actors find the production of recycled sand and aggregate profitable. The cost-effectiveness of recycling construction and demolition waste depends on several factors, including the proximity of quarries and waste processing platforms. The cost of waste disposal, closeness of recycling platforms to the waste generation and the primary material consumption areas make the recycled sand and aggregate competitive alternatives to conventional materials [8]. Furthermore, the production of one ton of recycled aggregate produces 40% less than greenhouses compared to the production of one ton of natural aggregate [6].
The fine fraction of CDW waste (0/4.8 mm) represents nearly 50% of the total demolished waste [9]. Recycled sand is primarily used for roads, concrete and backfill applications [10]. Characteristics of recycled aggregate are important for its reuse and they are heavily influenced by the nature of CDW waste, its processing method and the presence of impurities such as sulfate, chlorides, etc., which affect aggregate quality and limit its use for structural and high-strength concrete [11,12]. For structural concrete, French standards recommend a maximum of 30% replacement of natural aggregate. In addition, the texture of recycled sand and its higher sulfate content in recycled sand make it undesirable for concrete [13]. Some important characteristics of recycled sand and aggregate include mineralogy, grain size, porosity, absorption capacity, the presence of soluble sulfates, total sulfur, chlorides, alkali reaction etc. [14]. Recycled aggregate including sand has higher porosity and higher water absorption, which needs special attention for its reuse [15].
Sand is usually used in the foundation and subbase layer of the road. Another application of sand reuse is pedestrian pathways, which are separated from roads to ensure the safety of pedestrians [16]. Pedestrian pathways can be built with concrete, asphalt and fine aggregates (sand). However, asphalt and concrete pavements have a higher environmental impact and they prevent the recharging of groundwater, as they are impermeable. Pedestrian pathways with natural soils having higher clay content are slippery in rainy seasons and produce dust in dry seasons [17]. Therefore, appropriate soil selection is essential to make pathways to ensure mechanical resistance and to support the expected loads [18].
The stabilization of sand is conducted to increase its strength and make it suitable for pedestrian pathways, sidewalks and playgrounds, etc. In the case of pedestrian pathways, natural soil is removed and replaced with a layer of aggregate and stabilized soil. The stabilization of sand helps to make non-slippery pathways with significant wear resistance. The stabilization of sand can be achieved through mechanical means and with the addition of binders [19].
The engineering characteristics of sand are improved with the addition of cementitious binders by increasing the strength and stiffness of stabilized soils [20]. Furthermore, the addition of the binder increases the bearing capacity and shear strength of the soil, reduces its permeability and limits the settlement [21]. The addition of the binder reduces the dust and influences the color of pathways. Some common binders are cement, lime and geopolymers, etc. The mechanical strength of sand composites depends on the type of sand, its granulometry, the percentage of fine particles and the binder used. The higher percentage of fine particles in sand leads to the water absorption and swelling of sand which decreases its strength [5].
Due to the lack of awareness in the construction sector and lack of collaboration between academia and enterprises, public works companies in the Brittany region, France use mostly quarry sand stabilized with the traditional binder (cement) for the construction of pathways. In addition, recycling platforms for construction and demolition waste are relatively recent developments in Brittany. We have focused on the reuse of recycled sand for pathway construction. The objective of this study is to investigate the physico-chemical and mineralogical characteristics of recycled sand from the Brittany region of France for its recovery in pedestrian pathways. The use of recycled sand and its stabilization with a local binder will help to minimize the use of quarry sand and provide an ecological and low-cost material for pathways and road applications, contributing to the socio-economic development of the region through a sustainable development perspective. In addition, the optimization of the binder content is also focused on achieving the targeted sand resistance with economic and environmental approaches.

2. Materials and Method

The crushing and grinding of CDW waste produce fine and coarse aggregate that can be used in several applications including concrete, roads, backfill, etc. Figure 1 shows the CDW waste storage at the site of Gendrot Entreprise. The CDW waste is sorted to remove the metals and processed to produce fine (0/4 mm) and coarse aggregates (i.e., 4/14 mm, 0/30 mm, 0/100 mm, etc.) The crushing and grinding of CDW waste and the stockpiles of fine (sand) and coarse fractions at the recycling platform can be observed in Figure 1.

2.1. Recycled Sand

The recycled sand used in this study comes from the crushing of concrete blocks at the crushing and grinding platform in Rennes, France. The CDW waste at the recycling platform is processed into the coarse aggregate (4 mm, 16 mm, 31 mm, etc.), and the fine aggregate also called recycled sand. The recycled sand fraction has a size from 0 to 4 mm and, due to its texture, its primary application is road materials; it is not well-suited for structural concrete. A stockpile of recycled sand is shown in Figure 1. Physico-chemical and mineralogical characteristics of recycled sand (0/4 mm) recovered from CDW waste were investigated for its reuse in road applications. These characteristics include grain size, moisture content, soluble sulfates and mineralogy. The grain size distribution of soil was investigated according to French standards [22]. The initial moisture content of the sand was measured according to the standard [23]. The optimum moisture content of sand was determined with the Proctor test [24]. Soluble sulfates in recycled sand were determined through the gravimetric method [25]. The mineralogy of sand was determined with an X-ray diffraction technique that is commonly used to find the minerals’ content of different materials.

2.2. Binder

The stabilization of sand is essential to improve its strength and geotechnical characteristics [26]. Different types of binders are suggested in French norms including cement, ground-granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), fly ash, lime, etc., to stabilize the soil for road applications. The suggested dosage of the binder varies with the type of hydraulic and pozzolanic binder, i.e., cement from 4 to 8%, a hydraulic binder from 4 to 5% and activated GGBS from 10 to 20% [27]. Three types of local binders were used in this study to stabilize recycled sand which are Rolac (Lafarge Cement, France) GGBS (Ecocem, France) and ECOSOIL® (slag mixes) (ANT, France). The effectiveness of different binders including Rolac, GGBS and ECOSOIL® in stabilizing recycled sand for pathways’ applications is evaluated with different formulations.
Rolac is a hydraulic binder manufactured by Lafarge Cement (Saint-Pierre-la-Cour, France), for the treatment of soils to improve the bearing capacity and resistance of soils. The second binder used is the ground-granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) with the commercial name of Ecocem, which comes from the Ecocem enterprise from Dunkirk, France. GGBS is an industrial by-product attained from the blast furnace of steel production units. Carbon emissions for GGBS are considered zero, as it is an industrial by-product. It is mainly composed of oxides of calcium, magnesium, aluminum and silicate. The other binder used is ECOSOIL®, which is a mixture of steel slags. The choice of binder is based on local availability, carbon emissions and cost [28].

2.3. Manufacturing of Specimens

The characterization of recycled sand was followed by its stabilization with different binder dosages to optimize the mechanical properties and minimize the cost. The sand and binder were mixed, and an optimum water content was added to make a homogenous mixture. Cylindrical specimens of stabilized sand that were 4 cm in diameter and 8 cm in height, with a slenderness ratio of 2, were manufactured with a binder addition of 0% to 7%, which is the suggested quantity of binders to stabilize soils in accordance with industrial recommendations and literature studies [20,29]. Three specimens were manufactured for each formulation to observe the average mechanical strength through unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests on a laboratory scale. Recycled sand and binders were mixed with optimum moisture content and compacted with dynamic compaction through the Proctor normal energy of 600 kN·m/m3, which increases the strength and densification of specimens by re-arranging soil particles [26,28]. Specimens were manufactured with different formulations to optimize the strength of samples and dried for 14 days, instead of the usual drying time of 28 days, because it is important for road materials to achieve a significant strength as soon as possible. The different formulations used are shown in Table 1.
Figure 2 shows the manufacturing and drying of specimens. Figure 2a shows the sand and Rolac binder used to manufacture the samples; Figure 2b shows the mixing of sand with Rolac. Figure 2c shows the specimen preparation with compaction. Figure 2d shows the drying of demolded specimens.

2.4. Testing of Specimens

The compressive strength (UCS) of stabilized sand was found with the Shimadzu AGS-X model machine by using 200 N and 50 kN sensors. Figure 3a shows the testing of cylindrical specimens and the failure under compression in recycled sand specimens. Figure 3b shows a typical stress–strain curve of a cylindrical specimen.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Sand

The recycled sand used in this study comes from demolished concrete and is composed of inert and non-dangerous materials that can be used for uncoated roads, coated roads and soil cover [30]. Physico-chemical characteristics of recycled sand recovered from the Gendrot platform were determined through different tests and are shown in Table 2.
Table 2 shows that the initial moisture content of recycled sand is around 7%, which is variable with weathering conditions. The immediate load bearing (IBI) value of non-stabilized sand is around 35.1, which is the limit for stabilized sand reuse in the foundation layers of roads; it depends on traffic [27]. The grain size of the sand shows that fine particles of size below 0.063 mm are around 2.8%, which shows that the percentage of clay and silt in recycled sand is very low. However, a certain amount of clay usually improves the bonding of sand and increases its mechanical strength. The grading and shape of the aggregate have a significant influence on the workability, mechanical strength and durability of concrete, and are influenced by the nature of the CDW waste and crushing system adopted [32]. The grading curve of the recycled sand is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 shows that the percentage of fine particles in recycled sand with a diameter below 80 μm is around 5%. According to the French Technical Guide [33], soils with fine particles of 80 μm below 12% are considered poor in fine particles. The grain size of recycled sand in Figure 4 is within the suggested grain size range in the French standard for 0/4 mm sand reuse in construction materials which recommends the percentage of fine particles below 0.063 mm should be below 6.1% while the percentage of coarse particles of 4 mm should be higher than 89% [34].
Table 2 shows that the methylene blue value (MBV) of sand is around 0.05 g/100 g. The classification of soil in the French standard [35] is D2, as the MBV value of soil is below 0.1 and the percentage of fines (below 80 µm) is nearly 5%; these types of soil are insensitive to water [33,35]. Soluble sulfates in recycled sand are 0.51%, which is below the 1.3% maximum authorized limit in French standards for the reuse of recycled aggregates in road applications [25]. The presence of sulfates and chlorides in recycled sand leads to ettringite formation and a decrease in strength, and limits the perspective of reuse of this aggregate for structural applications due to the swelling of sulfate in rich soils [36,37].
The investigation of mineralogy and oxides in sand is important to observe the composition of recycled sand and select a suitable stabilizing agent. The mineralogy of sand was determined with XRF and XRD techniques. Table 3 shows the oxide composition of recycled sand.
Table 3 shows that silica and calcium oxide are major oxides in sand samples. The higher calcium oxide (CaO) content in recycled sand results from cement in concrete. Similar observations were made in research studies [38,39]. Sand is usually composed of silicate minerals such as quartz, feldspar and mica [40]. The mineralogy of recycled sand was studied with X-ray diffraction (XRD). The diffractogram of recycled sand in Figure 5 shows that quartz is the dominant mineral in the sand sample, and is one of the common minerals on the earth’s crust.
The proportion of different minerals from the XRD analysis in recycled sand is shown in Table 4.
Table 4 shows that common minerals in recycled sand are quartz, feldspar (albite), microcline, natroalunite, biotite and chamosite. The low percentage of clay minerals in Table 4 is due to the constituents of concrete, as concrete usually has very low clay.

3.2. Characteristics of Binders

Rolac optimum, GGBS slag (Ecocem) and ECOSOIL® binders were used to stabilize recycled sand. The Rolac binder is mainly composed of clinker. Another important constituent is lime. GGBS and ECOSOIL® binder is composed of slags with similar compositions. Table 5 shows the composition of different binders.
Table 5 shows that clinker and lime are the major constituents of the Rolac binder. Its compressive strength after 7 days of air drying is around 44.9 MPa. GGBS slag is another binder that is composed of ground-granulated blast slag. The composition of GGBS binder in Table 5 shows that calcium oxide, silica, alumina and magnesium oxide are major components of GGBS slag-based binder. In the case of sulphate-rich soil, GGBS binders show good strength, as the swelling of soils takes place in case of a stabilization with cement [26]. Table 5 shows that the ECOSOIL® binder is also composed of mainly slags with the addition of a 5% regulator.

3.3. Unconfined Compressive Strength of Samples

The unconfined compressive strength of cylindrical specimens was determined to investigate the strength of cylindrical specimens and the effect of the addition of binders. Compressive stress–strain curves of recycled sand with Rolac binders are shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6 shows that from S0 to R5, binder addition sand specimens show a plastic deformation along with a similar modulus of elasticity and low strength. The plastic deformation under compressive load is due to the presence of fine particles and irregular shapes of recycled sand particles from construction and demolition waste. The stress–strain behavior starts to change from R6 to R7, with higher strength and steeper slopes, as the increased bonding of sand grains increases with the higher stabilizer content, thwarting the deformation. In addition, the slow loading rate of the apparatus prevents brittle failure.
Table 6 shows the compressive strength of specimens stabilized with a Rolac binder and GGBS and ECOSOIL® binder.
Figure 7 shows the average compressive strength of three stabilized recycled sand specimens for each formulation (Rolac, GGBS and ECOSOIL®).
The compressive strength with the addition of a Rolac binder is considerably higher than the specimens manufactured with the addition of ECOSOIL® and GGBS slag, and it is 12 times higher than non-stabilized soil with a 7% addition of Rolac. The reactivity of the sand–binder mixture is low until a 5% Rolac addition and, afterwards, increases significantly. The clinker is mainly composed of carbonates and clay minerals; its hydration forms calcium silicate hydrates (CSSH) and calcium aluminate hydrates (CAH), along with the release of calcium hydro oxide (CaOH). The hydration of Rolac hardens the sand mixture and increases its strength. The reactivity of the binder continues with unreactive cement particles and free water and modifies the soil’s strength and durability [41,42].
It can be observed from Figure 7 that the UCS strength of specimens stabilized with the Rolac binder is 1.2 MPa with a 7% binder addition. It is significantly greater than 1 MPa of strength, which is the minimum strength required for the foundation layer and subbase for roads according to French standards. The compressive strength of sand specimens increases with the addition of the GGBS and Ecosoil binder. The strength increase is gradual and relatively low. At a 7% addition of the GGBS and Ecosoil binder, the strength of stabilized sand specimens is five times higher than non-stabilized samples. The strength increase in sand specimens is due to the formation of cementitious compounds with the hydration of GGBS and ECOSOIL binders with the reaction of pozzolana in slag and calcium hydroxide in sand. In addition, slag components fill the voids in sand and decrease the quantity of free, fine fractions [43]. However, the low strength with GGBS and ECOSOIL® binders is due to the absence of a strong activator and lower molding moisture content. The alkali activator of slags (the GGBS and ecosoil binder) helps to generate the CASH structure which increases the bonding [28].
Furthermore, the stabilization with GGBS is a slow process that takes time. The performance of ECOSOIL® is also considerably lower and similar to GGBS, which is comprehensible because both have a similar composition, as ECOSOIL® is also mainly composed of slags. The compressive strength, initial deformation modulus and deformation at the failure of sand specimens, stabilized with the addition of different percentages of binders, are shown in Table 7.
Table 7 shows that the compressive strength is at its maximum with a 7% addition of the Rolac binder and meets the strength requirement, thus providing an opportunity to locally develop sustainable and cost-effective construction material. Initially, the tangent modulus increases with the increasing compressive strength of specimens. The deformation of most of the specimens is between 1.6 to 2% at peak load.
Similar studies have been conducted on dredged sediments, excavated soils and quarry sands. Shalabi et al. [20] stabilized quarry sand with the addition of up to 8% cement. After a curing time of 28 days with an 8% cement addition, a compressive strength of 4.5 MPa is achieved, which is sufficient to meet the strength requirement for the subbase layer of roads. Hussan et al. [28] stabilized highly organic dredged sediments by using a conventional binder and alkali-activated ground-granulated blast furnace slag. It was observed that with the 20% addition of GGBS, a compressive strength of 7.6 MPa is achieved after 28 days which fulfills the strength requirement for sediment reuse in the subbase and foundation layer of roads. For the use of natural soil in the subbase layer of roads, the addition of sand can improve the engineering characteristics of soil. Roy [44] found that the addition of 15% sand with natural soil increases the bearing capacity of soil significantly and makes it suitable for road applications.

4. Conclusions

In this study, physico-chemical and mineralogical characteristics of recycled sand from Rennes, France were determined for its reuse in pedestrian pathways. The grain size analysis of sand shows that the percentage of fine particles of size below 0.063 mm is 2.8%. The classification of recycled sand shows that this material is D2 soils, which are non-sensitive to water and suitable for road and pathway applications. Chemical analysis of sand shows that the percentage of soluble sulfate is 0.51% which is lower than the maximum authorized limit of 1.3% in French standards for road applications. The methylene blue value of sand is 0.05 g/100 g, which shows that sand is insensitive to water. The characterization of sand was followed by the fabrication of sand specimens with dynamic compaction. The testing of sand specimens shows that non-stabilized recycled sand specimens have a compressive strength of 0.1 MPa, which is significantly low. Sand samples were stabilized with 0 to 7% of the Rolac, GGBS and ECOSOIL® binder addition. The maximum compressive strength of stabilized sand samples is achieved at a 7% addition of binder which is 1.2 MPa for the Rolac addition and 0.5 MPa for GGBS and ECOSOIL® binders. Recycled sand with 7% Rolac binder has a strength higher than 1 MPa and meets the compressive strength requirements for its reuse in road applications.
This investigation highlights the possibility for the reuse of recycled sand for pathways and road applications. The reuse of recycled sand can be a sustainable and eco-friendly solution to replace the quarry sand. However, further testing is recommended to observe the tensile strength and durability of recycled sand specimens for its use in road applications with low traffic and for pedestrian pathways.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.K., A.P. and A.M.; Experimental work, M.H. and D.L.; Analysis, M.H., A.K., H.Z. and D.L.; Writing, M.H., A.K. and D.L.; Supervision, A.K., A.M., A.P., N.L. and H.Z., Review and editing, M.H., A.K., H.Z., D.L. and P.A.H.R.; Project administration, A.K., A.M., A.P., N.L. and H.Z.; Funding acquisition, A.K., A.M. and A.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work has been funded by the project European Union, NextGenerationEU under the France Relance program for the valorization of inert excavated soils (VALODEB) with the collaboration of Unilasalle Rennes and Gendrot TP.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

We are thankful to Jean Baptiste Besnier, Ivane Lelievre, Elise Chenot, Sebestian Potel and Clarisse Roig for their technical assistance and cooperation in the experimental work.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Antony Provost was employed by the company GENDROT TP. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Transformation of CDW waste into coarse and fine aggregates.
Figure 1. Transformation of CDW waste into coarse and fine aggregates.
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Figure 2. Sand and binder (a), sample preparation (b), manufacturing of samples (c) and cylindrical samples (d).
Figure 2. Sand and binder (a), sample preparation (b), manufacturing of samples (c) and cylindrical samples (d).
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Figure 3. Compressive strength test of a specimen (a) and typical stress–strain behavior (b).
Figure 3. Compressive strength test of a specimen (a) and typical stress–strain behavior (b).
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Figure 4. Grain size distribution of recycled sand.
Figure 4. Grain size distribution of recycled sand.
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Figure 5. XRD analysis of recycled sand samples.
Figure 5. XRD analysis of recycled sand samples.
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Figure 6. Compressive stress-strain curves of Rolac-sand samples.
Figure 6. Compressive stress-strain curves of Rolac-sand samples.
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Figure 7. Compressive strength of stabilized recycled sand specimens. Note: S0 = control specimen with 100% sand, R1 = sample with 1% Rolac addition, G1 = sample with 1% GGBS and E1 = sample with 1% ECOSOIL®.
Figure 7. Compressive strength of stabilized recycled sand specimens. Note: S0 = control specimen with 100% sand, R1 = sample with 1% Rolac addition, G1 = sample with 1% GGBS and E1 = sample with 1% ECOSOIL®.
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Table 1. Formulations of stabilized sand.
Table 1. Formulations of stabilized sand.
BinderRolacECOSOIL®GGBS
ReferencesS0, R1, R2, R3
R4, R5, R6, R7		S0, E1, E3 E5, E7S0, G1, G3
G5, G7
Note: S0 = Reference sample with 0% binder; R1 = Sample with addition of 1% Rolac binder, R2 = Sample with 2% Rolac binder …… R7 = Sample with 7% Rolac binder; E1 = Sample with 1% ECOSOIL® biner and E7 = Sample with 7% ECOSOIL® biner; G1 = Sample with the addition of 1% GGBS binder and G7 = Sample with addition of 7% GGBS (Ecocem) binder.
Table 2. Physico-chemical characteristics of CDW recycled sand.
Table 2. Physico-chemical characteristics of CDW recycled sand.
SizeWi (%)Particles below 0.063 mm (%)Particles below 4 mm (%)Dmax (mm)Classification GTRSS
(%)		MBV (g/100 g)OWC
(%)		ODD
(g/cm3)		IBI
0/4 mm7.22.8988D20.510.0511.31.835.1
Note: Wi = initial moisture content, SS = soluble sulfate, ODD density = optimum dry density, OWC = optimal water content, MBV = methylene blue value and IBI = immediate bearing capacity index found by [31].
Table 3. Oxide composition of recycled sand.
Table 3. Oxide composition of recycled sand.
Unit (%)SiO2CaOAL2O3Fe2O3K2OOthers
Sand 45.538.44.64.62.64.3
Table 4. Mineralogical composition of sand.
Table 4. Mineralogical composition of sand.
MineralogyQuartzAlbiteMicroclineNatroaluniteBiotiteChamosite
Concentration (%)43.326.512.8105.42
Table 5. Composition and characteristics of binders.
Table 5. Composition and characteristics of binders.
RolacGGBSECOSOIL®
Clinker80%Slags95 ± 5%LHF30%
Lime8%Clinker5 ± 3%LLD65%
Secondary constituents5%pH9.8Regulator5%
CaO65%CaO40%--
SiO220.8%SiO235%--
Al2O35.4%Al2O310%--
Fe2O32.2%MgO8%--
Rc-744.9 MPaRc-7 days31 MPaRc-7 days21.7 MPa
Density (g/cm3) - -2.7
Note: Rc-7 days = compressive strength after 7 days, mixture of blast furnace slag (LHF) and steelworks slag (LLD).
Table 6. Compressive strength of stabilized sand specimens.
Table 6. Compressive strength of stabilized sand specimens.
Rolacσc
(MPa)		GGBSσc
(MPa)		ECOSOIL®σc (MPa)
S00.1S00.1S00.1
R10.1G10.2A10.2
R20.2G30.3A30.2
R30.3G50.3A50.2
R40.5G70.5A70.5
R50.5
R60.8
R71.2
Table 7. Mechanical parameters of recycled sand specimens.
Table 7. Mechanical parameters of recycled sand specimens.
SampleS0R1R2R3R4R5R6R7E1E3E5E7G1G3G5G7
σc (MPa)0.10.10.20.30.50.50.81.20.20.20.20.50.20.30.30.5
E (MPa) 0.10.20.20.40.380.30.641.30.20.50.20.50.20.30.20.2
ε (%)1.71.61.81.82.02.02.12.20.30.71.61.31.71.81.91.9
Note: σc = compressive strength, E = initial deformation modulus and ε = deformation at failure.
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Hussain, M.; Zmamou, H.; Provost, A.; Romero, P.A.H.; Mahieu, A.; Leblanc, N.; Levacher, D.; Kane, A. Stabilization and Recycling of Sand in Pedestrian Walkways. Buildings 2024, 14, 205. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14010205

AMA Style

Hussain M, Zmamou H, Provost A, Romero PAH, Mahieu A, Leblanc N, Levacher D, Kane A. Stabilization and Recycling of Sand in Pedestrian Walkways. Buildings. 2024; 14(1):205. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14010205

Chicago/Turabian Style

Hussain, Mazhar, Hafida Zmamou, Antony Provost, Paula Andrea Higuera Romero, Angélique Mahieu, Nathalie Leblanc, Daniel Levacher, and Abdoulaye Kane. 2024. "Stabilization and Recycling of Sand in Pedestrian Walkways" Buildings 14, no. 1: 205. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14010205

APA Style

Hussain, M., Zmamou, H., Provost, A., Romero, P. A. H., Mahieu, A., Leblanc, N., Levacher, D., & Kane, A. (2024). Stabilization and Recycling of Sand in Pedestrian Walkways. Buildings, 14(1), 205. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14010205

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