Kiln–House Isomorphism and Cultural Isomerism in the Pavilions of the Yuci Area: The Xiang-Ming Pavilion as an Example

Abstract

The pavilion is a time-honored architectural form in the Chinese silhouette with strong regional characteristics. Its appearance and technical means are often adaptively combined according to the characteristics of local architecture. The “kiln–house isomorphism” is a unique construction technology of the Shanxi construction type in China. Therefore, the “kiln–house isomorphism” is generally adopted for the construction of pavilions in Shanxi. This study focuses on Xiaonanzhuang Village, Yuci District, Jinzhong City, Shanxi Province. Taking the Xiang-ming Pavilion, the core building of the village, as an example, we analyze the architectural characteristics of the “kiln–house isomorphism” in the pavilion in this area, describe the general construction rules of the region, and conduct a deep investigation of the five “cultural isomerism” factors of the pavilions in the region, namely, geomancy, etiquette and music, beliefs, clans, and cultivation and study. The results of this research will enrich the regional knowledge of such pavilions and add new objects for the protection of local architectural heritage, providing a theoretical basis for the contemporary adaptive reuse of pavilions in the Yuci area from a cultural perspective.

1. Introduction

1.1. Background

The Yuci area is located in the central part of Shanxi Province, and the existing ancient architectural resources are old, complete, abundant, and well-preserved. Since the Ming and Qing dynasties, society has been stable, and the prosperity of Jin merchants brought material wealth and spiritual culture back to their hometowns [1]. In order to demonstrate their financial strength and the identification of their roots, returning Jin merchants called on the villagers to build large-scale, beautifully decorated pavilions. It is worth noting that the concept of the pavilion is still undefined in the international architectural community. The term varies in different cultural and functional contexts [2,3]. In the context of this study, a pavilion has an arched kiln structure in the lower part, and the upper part has a traditional Chinese wooden structure; there are two buildings with different functions in the upper and lower layers (Figure 1).

Archaeological data show that this type of pavilion originated from the way that cave dwellings were constructed in the Yellow River Valley of China during the Neolithic period [4]. In the North and South Dynasties period, masonry arches were used in the body of the pagoda, and the top of the pagoda was built to imitate a building with a wood structure, which was the earliest example of this kind of construction [5]. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the technology of masonry arches matured, and a large number of buildings with arched kiln structures and wood structure systems were built, which resulted in the “kiln–house isomorphism”, a construction method with strong regional characteristics that was widely used and became the main form of traditional village pavilions in the Yuci area.

The pavilion, which is a combination of a kiln and wood-structure building, is seldom mentioned in the existing ancient and official architectural books and records, and the content and practices described in the records are different from those of the existing buildings. Therefore, this kind of “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilion, existing in the folk towns with strong regional characteristics, is of a different kind from the traditional Chinese pavilion. It is the embodiment of ancient people’s construction technology and a carrier of architectural culture in the Yuci area; it contains the wisdom of habitat science and has a high research value and a broad research space.

However, with the deepening of urbanization, most of the pavilions in traditional villages have been demolished, and the lack of traditional architectural entities has led to the fragmentation, disconnection and systematic absence of local architectural culture, which affects people’s understanding and knowledge of traditional culture [6]. In addition, some pavilions have been renovated and have taken on a modern appearance that is incompatible with the traditional imagery, which has led to the dilution of the regional characteristics of the pavilions and a tendency towards homogeneity.

Therefore, the protection of cultural heritage is a common responsibility of all humankind. Exploring the construction method of the “kiln–house isomorphism” in the pavilions of the Yuci area can not only help the general construction law of this kind of building to be discovered but can also help reveal this unique regional construction idea and its traditional cultural connotations. This can provide a theoretical basis and practical guidance for formulating more scientific architectural heritage protection and renewal strategies.

This study takes the Xiang-ming Pavilion as a case study. The sample is located in Jinzhong City, Yuci District, Xiaonanzhuang Village, locally known as the Exorcism Emperor and Kui Star Pavilion Hole. It was founded in 1794, the 59th year of Qianlong in the Qing Dynasty. In 2004, Xiaonanzhuang Village partially repaired it and painted it as it was, basically removing the damage to the cultural relics. The existing pavilion is a Qing Dynasty building. Now, Xiaonanzhuang Village has been relocated. Xiang-ming Pavilion is a traditional village landmark building with a historical and cultural landscape standing on the university campus. The main body of the building is well-preserved, and it is a typical representative of the construction features of the “kiln–house isomorphism” in the Yuji area, while it is also a rare sample from this area (Figure 2 and Figure 3).

1.2. Literature Review

1.2.1. Overview Studies in China

Chinese scholars are currently systematically exploring pavilion-style architecture. Initially, studies were concerned with conceptual analysis [2], development history [7], and other aspects. Today, the spatial combinations [8], morphological characteristics [9], structural performance [10], and detailed decorations [11] are being further analyzed.

In 1935, Liang Sicheng and Lin Huiyin studied ancient architecture in Shanxi and pointed out [12], “In Shanxi, the building of the arch is an important feature”, and they indicated its wide use: “Residentials and temples are using it.”. At the same time, arches are often integrated with wooden buildings. Therefore, “building on the arch is also a characteristic of construction in Shanxi”. The above situation fully demonstrates that in the early 20th century, Liang Sicheng and Lin Huiyin had already begun to pay attention to the ancient architecture of Shanxi and its regional characteristics.

In recent years, academics have begun to pay attention to the architectural historiography and morphological study of pavilions under the influence of “kiln–house isomorphic” technology. Liu Dunzhen [13] and Liu Zhiping [14] were the first to pay attention to the technical phenomenon of the “kiln–house isomorphism” and gave a preliminary overview of its origin and practice. In 2003, Wang Jinping [15] discussed the geographical distribution characteristics, architectural morphology, and construction technology of the “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilions in Shanxi; this was one of the earliest academic studies in the Chinese architectural field to take the “kiln–house isomorphism” as a topic of research. Subsequently, the architectural community on the “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilion of the architectural form [16,17], spatial organization [18,19] and architectural ornament [20] carried out a series of studies. In 2004, Sun Dazhang [21] studied the architectural form of the integration of an arched kiln structure and a traditional Chinese wooden structure in the Jinzhong area of Shanxi Province and suggested that the construction technology of the “kiln–house isomorphism” has an important referential significance for contemporary regional architectural practice. After that, many Chinese scholars began to study this construction strategy [22,23], structural system [24,25], and construction technology [26] in order to further explore the modern application of “kiln–house isomorphic” construction technology and the shaping of regional cultural characteristics. In addition, Yu Zhuoqun [27], Liang Zhiyao [28], Zeng Wenhui [29] and other scholars lay a theoretical foundation for the study of the modern transfer of “kiln–house isomorphi” architecture. In addition to the studies mentioned above, others have been conducted on the use of space and beliefs related to pavilions under the influence of “kiln–house isomorphic” technology [30,31,32].

1.2.2. Overview of International Research

In recent years, there have also been studies on pavilions abroad [33,34,35,36,37,38,39]. Yulia Ivashko [37] analyzed the origins of such a small architectural form as the Chinese pavilion and investigated its functional, planning, and artistic figurative features. Li Shengcai and Tuo Song [38] utilized a numerical finite element (FE) trial-and-error procedure to correct the timber frame of the tilted Feiyun pavilion. Mykola Orlenko [39], in her study, discussed the particularities of architectural restoration and heritage conservation measures in the Suzhou region by using the pavilion in that region as an example. However, not many academic reports have considered pavilions built under the influence of “kiln–house isomorphic” technology in a comprehensive and in-depth study; they have been taken into account in only a small number of investigations and studies by foreign scholars. Joseph Lee [40] of the University of Cambridge drew on Liu Dunzhen’s study of the arch kiln in the Loess region in his book and showed that there are a wide variety of kiln types in China, and their architectural structures and forms have a variety of regional characteristics. Japanese scholar Seiichi Mizuno [41] described the combination of arched kiln and wooden buildings in a courtyard space in detail.

In summary, international research on ancient Chinese pavilions mainly focuses on physical space, structural performance and sustainable development [42]. Chinese scholars have accumulated certain research results on the “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilions, but they still have certain limitations. Firstly, most of the existing research is on the “kiln–house isomorphic” traditional dwellings, while pavilions using “kiln–house isomorphic” technology have not been considered in systematic research, and there is no regular recognition of the appearance, form, structure, or space of such pavilions. Secondly, most of the current research on the “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilions focuses on analyses of the spatial layout and appearance of the buildings, and there is insufficient exploration of the inheritance of the traditional Chinese building culture contained therein, resulting in a lack of cultural connotations to support the preservation and reuse of this type of architectural heritage in practice.

1.3. Research Objectives and Questions

This study takes the specific case of the Xiang-ming Pavilion in Yuji District, Jinzhong City, Shanxi Province, as the research object. By comparing the Xiang-ming Pavilion with other “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilions in Jinzhong, we verify whether the pavilion in Yuzi conforms to the general construction law in Jinzhong and summarize the construction characteristics of “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilions in Yuzi. The cultural connotation of the pavilions in this area is then explored in depth according to their social background, architectural features and spatial relationships. This study reveals the factor of “cultural isomerism” in the “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilion, which provides a research idea for the discovery of the value of buildings of the same type in the Yuzi area. It also provides cultural and theoretical support for the protection and sustainable use of the architectural heritage of the “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilion in the region.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Overview of the Study Area

The Yuci District is the political, economic, and transport center of Jinzhong City, Shanxi Province. It has a long history, beginning in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods [42]. The geographical coordinates are 37°23′–37°54′ N, 112°34′–113°8′ E, covering an area of 1138 square kilometers. The terrain of the territory is high in the east and low in the west, with an altitude of 768–1814 m, exhibiting large ups and downs; the middle and low mountain areas exhibit soil and rocks, as well as loess hill and gully areas account for 75.7% of the whole territory [43] (Figure 4).

Folk multi-story buildings in the region are usually characterized by the construction of the “kiln–house isomorphism”. The term “kiln” mainly refers to the kiln architecture that exists in Jinzhong, Shanxi Province, and its types include earth kilns, masonry kilns, cliff kilns, and pit kilns. The term “kiln” in the context of this study mainly refers to a masonry kiln that is open on both sides for people to pass through. “House” in the context of this study refers to traditional Chinese buildings formed by a wooden structural system of columns and beams, and it also includes a mixture of wooden structures and masonry walls. The term “isomorphism” originates from higher algebra, meaning that if there are two morphisms between two mathematical structures, the relationship between the properties or operations of these objects makes the composite of the two a constant morphism [44]. In architecture, it is derived as a cultural construction paradigm, mainly referring to the architectural technique of integrating two different structural systems. Therefore, “kiln–house isomorphism” refers to the combination of an arched kiln structure underneath and a mixed brick and wood structure on top (Figure 5).

2.2. Research Methodology

2.2.1. Literature-Analysis Method

At the beginning of the study, Web of Science, MDPI, SciRadar, Sage, ScienceDirect, ProQuest, and other foreign electronic databases, as well as Zhi.com, Wanfang, and other Chinese electronic databases, were used as a platform; Google Scholar and other literature search engines were used as literature search tools. Researchers collected, sorted, and analyzed the literature and research results related to the “kiln–house isomorphic” architecture and constructed a theoretical foundation for this research. The fragmented information in books, journals, and theses related to the research content was integrated and sorted out, and the existing materials, such as local records, historical records, and research reports, were summarized. The nature, history, society, and cultural environments of Jinzhong, Shanxi Province, are extracted to provide background information for the subsequent analysis of the construction characteristics of the “kiln–house Isomorphism” and its cultural factors.

2.2.2. Field-Survey Method

The geospatial scope of the research was determined to be the Yuji area in Jinzhong, Shanxi Province. The object of the research is the well-preserved pavilions demonstrating the “kiln–house isomorphism” with typical regional characteristics. The first is a survey of the technical aspects of the “kiln–house isomorphism”. The current situation of the pavilion was surveyed and mapped, and photographs were taken to express the main contents of the building, such as the surrounding environment, the overall appearance of the building, the spatial combinations, and the detailed decorations. Then, the researchers used traditional mapping tools, such as a straightedge, angle ruler, plumb bob, and laser rangefinder, to map the specific parameters of the kiln, the wooden building, and all of the architectural components in accordance with archaeological, architectural mapping methods, and drew the architectural plan, elevation, section drawings, and a master drawing. The second is the investigation of architectural culture background. Interviews were conducted with the local technicians and villagers to gain a targeted understanding of the local economic conditions, social customs, architectural use, and production and living styles; these oral materials were combined with the preliminary textual information, which allowed generalizations to be made, and makes systematic research and analysis on the cultural environment of pavilions demonstrating the “kiln–house isomorphism”.

2.2.3. Induction and Comparison Methods

In the current research methodology of the “kiln–house isomorphism”, there is more physical examination than theoretical research. The vast majority of the research rests on the methodology of field research, where such buildings are mapped and documented, mainly in order to analyze the characteristics of the physical elements, such as morphology, technology, and materials.

This study analyzes the mapping results of the pavilions demonstrating the “kiln–house isomorphism” in the Yuzi area and compares them with the technical characteristics of other samples in the Jinzhong area. The morphological, technical and decorative features of the “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilions in this area are summarized, and general conclusions are drawn about the construction patterns in the region. Then, the cultural factors embedded in this type of architecture are explored. In order to describe the phenomenon that traditional Chinese architectural types, through different vertical combinations, give rise to architectural entities with different cultural connotations, this study borrows the concept of “isomerism” from chemistry [45] and constructs an analytical framework of “cultural isomerism”. The five cultural factors of geomantic omens, the Set of Etiquette, folk beliefs, Patriarchal Clan Culture, and farming-reading culture expressed in the “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilions are systematically summarized so as to explore the inner elements of the architectural heritage and express them scientifically in a more comprehensive and rational way.

2.2.4. Case-Analysis Method

Technology and culture have abstract characteristics, and only by attaching them to actual cases for empirical analysis can researchers grasp the essence of the pavilion in Yuci District. Therefore, this study uses the Xiang-ming Pavilion in the Yuci District as an example to analyze the characteristic law of “kiln-house isomorphic” architecture. In this way, it reveals the phenomenon of “cultural isomerism” due to the technology of the “kiln–house isomorphism”. On this basis, the layout, form, space, and decoration of the Xiang-ming Pavilion are used as carriers to specifically analyze the internal characteristics of each “cultural isomeric” factor (Figure 6).

3. Results

3.1. “Kiln–House Isomorphism” in Pavilion Buildings

3.1.1. Morphological Characteristics

Pavilions are mostly located at the village’s entrance or in the village’s traffic hub of the village [46]. Due to the specificity of the location, the rear of the lower kiln is opened up to form a longitudinal barrel arch. The arch height of the pavilions in the Jinzhong area is generally about 5.5 m, and the lower base is slightly trapezoidal from bottom to top. The upper wooden buildings are mostly made up of three or five bays. Larger villages and towns use a hip-and-gable roof, and smaller villages generally use a flush-gable roof. Although the architectural form is low, the buildings are full of decorations and colorful paintings [47]. As landmark buildings, they fully show a village’s culture and wealth. In addition, the “kiln–house isomorphism” retains the independence of the lower kilns and the upper wooden buildings, creating a stylistic contrast. Hard materials, such as bricks and stones, are used for the cross-street doors in the lower part, while wood is used for the upper buildings, except for the gables. The hard texture of the stone and the soft texture of the wood form a strong stylistic contrast. In the allocation of color, the lower part is not carved and painted, and the stone is bare, showing its original features; the upper part of the building is painted on the surface of all of the wooden components, and there is a strong contrast between the lower and upper parts (Figure 7).

The Xiang-ming Pavilion was first built at the entrance of Xiaonanzhuang Village. Later, due to the continuous expansion and development of the village, its location was moved to the geometric center. The pavilion covers an area of 115.4 square meters. The lower cross-street doorway is slightly larger than the upper brick-and-wood building, and the two are stacked with one on top of the other; the plane shape is similar to the Chinese character ‘hui’ (Figure 8). The bottom “kiln” is a two-way gate hole made of brick, and it is approximately square, with a length of 11,355 mm from east to west, a width of 10,060 mm from north to south, and a total height of 5260 mm. In the east, there is a small door facing south, and there is a staircase leading to the upper floor. The top of the kiln is a 670 mm-high enclosing wall with cross-shaped holes on the surface. Two plaques are inlaid on the top of the arch; the south is ‘Xiangming,’ and the north is ‘Yulin’. The upper part of the kiln is built with a single-layer brick-and-wood structure referring to Fumo Emperor and Kuixing Hall, with a width of three rooms. The roof is shaped into a single-eave flush gable roof and covered with yellow semi-circular tiles. The front and rear eaves are single corridors with a corridor depth of 850 mm. There are 16 columns, all of which are exposed columns (Figure 9). The specific surveying and mapping data of the main parts and components of the building are shown in the following table (

Table 1. Data of the main parts and components (Note: “/”—This component is not measured by the data.).

Size	Length	Width	Height	Thickness	Diameter
Name
Kiln	11.35 m	10.06 m	5.26 m	/	/
Wooden architecture	8.10 m	7.59 m	6.83 m	/	/
Eave column	/	/	3.32 m	/	0.25 m
Jin column	/	/	2.83 m	/	0.27 m
Gable	7.01 m	/	3.12 m	0.37 m	/
King post	/	/	0.82 m	/	0.13 m
3-purlin beam	2.60 m	/	0.26 m	0.13 m	/
5-purlin beam	4.78 m	/	0.31 m	0.18 m	/
Baotou beam	0.80 m	/	0.16 m	0.12 m	/
Ridge purlin	7.35 m	/	/	/	0.16 m
Upper gold purlin	7.35 m	/	/	/	0.14 m
Lower gold purlin	7.35 m	/	/	/	0.14 m
Yan purlin	7.33 m	/	/	/	0.15 m
Stairs kicking surface	1.33 m	/	0.33 m	/	/
Stair tread	1.33 m	0.39 m	/	/	/
Door	/	0.67 m	2.62 m	0.11 m	/
Window	/	0.64 m	2.62 m	0.11 m	/
Sparrow brace	1.38 m	/	0.93 m	0.04 m	/
Roof tile	0.21 m	0.15 m	/	0.01 m	/
Ridge decoration	/	0.61 m	0.97 m	0.34 m	/
Face brick of kiln	/	0.47 m	0.21 m	/	/
Indoor floor tiles	0.36 m	0.24 m	/	/	/

). As the village’s core religious building, Dougong does not apply to the wooden house on the upper part of the Xiang-ming Pavilion. This is not due to an insufficient architectural grade but, rather, the serious degradation of the structural function of Dougong in the Ming and Qing Dynasties [48]; it basically exists as a decorative component in the building. This practice also reflects the timely perception of technological progress from the side of craftsmen.

3.1.2. Technical Characteristics

The village pavilion building of the “kiln–house isomorphism” involves a mixed load-bearing system with a lower arch structure and an upper brick-and-wood structure. At the structural level, the wooden skeleton of the upper house and the masonry walls on both sides are jointly load-bearing to transmit the roof load. The lower kiln is dominated by an arch structure, and kiln legs are used on both sides to bear the upper load and balance its lateral thrust [49]. Because the force of the wooden building on the upper part of the pavilion is similar to that of the general building on the ground, its description will not be repeated here. The lower part of the building withstands all of the load, making it the key to the whole building stress system. By analyzing the quantitative data on the arch span, kiln leg width, thickness of covering soil, and indoor ground-lifting height of the Xiang-ming Pavilion and other “kiln–house isomorphic” buildings in Jinzhong [50] (

Table 2. Statistics of some structural parameters (Note: “/”—This data cannot be collected).

Name	Arch Span (Central Bay)	Kiln Leg Width	Thickness of Covering Soil	Indoor Ground Lifting Height
Xiang-ming Pavilion, Xiaonanzhuang Village, Yuci District	3.15 m	2.10 m	1.03 m	0.35 m
Zhenwu Temple, Hougou Ancient Village, Yuci District	3.26 m	2.41 m	1.82 m	/
Chang Family Courtyard gate, Yuci District	3.44 m	2.86 m	/	/
Gate of Zhangbi Castle, Jiexiu City	3.18 m	2.65 m	1.35 m	/
Jingye Hall, Gaojiaya Village, Jingsheng Town	3.50 m	3.00 m	1.00 m	0.30 m
Qianji Hall, Hengzhen Castle, Jingsheng Town	3.20 m	1.80 m	1.20 m	0.40 m

), the structural pattern of such pavilions in Yuci can be derived.

In terms of roof construction, the kiln roofs of the “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilions in the Yuci area are usually covered with between 1.0 and 2.0 m of soil, and the wooden structural system on the kiln is used as an accessory; the roof is not in a fixed form, and the double-pitched flush gable roof is the main type that is seen, with a few roofs being made into the hip-and-gable roof. In terms of wall construction, the lower masonry kiln is filled with natural materials, such as locally sourced loess and gravel, inside the kiln legs. The exterior is constructed with masonry and whitewash as a binder to enhance its integrity. Finally, cement is used to plaster the walls for protection. The mountain wall of the upper building is made of masonry with lime applied to the outer wall, and the rest of the building is made of wooden components, except for the mountain wall. As the Jinzhong region has a temperate monsoon climate, it is hot and rainy in summer, which makes it relatively humid [51]. Therefore, the masonry floor was built with brick arches at the top of the kiln and then covered with soil and tamped in layers; then, stone or brick materials with good moisture resistance were pasted on the upper part, resulting in the effective resistance of rain and humidity. Finally, in order to prevent the problem of rainwater backup, it was common to raise the interior floor of the upper floor by 0.3 to 0.6 m [52].

In addition, the integration of the upper part of the masonry kiln with the lower part of the upper wooden house is an extremely critical technology. The foundation of a timber frame house is usually completed when the lower kiln is roofed. When the kiln is topped out, the posts of the wooden building are buried in the kiln roof, larger and more regular stone masonry is chosen for the base of the posts, and then the voids are filled with gravel and finally grouted to complete the kiln roof. The floor of the superstructure is similar to the construction of the general building floor, first laying the bedding layer and leveling layer, and then the brick or square brick is paved on it [53].

The practice of the upper wooden building of the Xiang-ming Pavilion is similar to that of the usual wooden buildings. Its main beam structure is a traditional post and lintel construction. Five purlin beams are set up on the tiebeam, which reaches the outer eaves and supports the roof together with the exposed columns. A five-purlin beam with pads supports a three-purlin beam, and brackets are placed on the three-purlin beam, which is stacked on the king post. There are openwork decorations with a cloud pattern on both sides of the king post, and there is Chashou on both sides to assist in supporting the king post. Moreover, a cloud pattern is applied on the upper part of the king post to support the ridged purlin. There are architraves between the columns of the front and back eaves, and there is Pingbanfang on the column. There is no Dougong on the tiebeam, and a Baotou beam is inserted into the hypostyle column to pick up the eave purlins of the corridor. This results in the formation of different heights of the eaves and the corridor space (Figure 10).

By analyzing the details of the building structure and different parts of the construction, as mentioned above, it was possible to derive the general construction law of the “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilion in traditional villages in the Yuci area.

In the “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilion in the Yuci district, the arch span of the kiln is generally 3.0–3.5 m, with 3.2 m being the most common. The width of the kiln legs is 1.8–3.0 m. Most of the kiln wall construction involves traditional Chinese wall masonry (“Jinbao Yin”); that is, two-thirds of the thickness of the inner wall comprises adobe or rammed earth, while one-third of the thickness of the outer wall comprises masonry. The thickness of the soil covering the upper part of the kiln roof is about 1.0 to 2.0 m, which effectively prevents the lower part of the kiln from deforming or collapsing. The floors of the upper interiors are generally elevated by 0.3 to 0.6 m. The woodwork construction of the upper part of the building is consistent with traditional Chinese architecture, and the roofs are mainly double-pitched flush gable roofs, with very few hip-and-gable roofs.

3.1.3. Morphological Characteristics

While traditional Chinese architecture emphasizes harmony and proportionality [54], the kiln and house at Xiang-ming Pavilion are in great contrast. This contrast mainly reflects a strong contrast in the decoration in the upper and lower parts. The lower part of the kiln is constructed using a Flemish bond, and only the surfaces of the bricks are painted with whitewash to protect them. The north and south facades of the kiln body are equipped with beast heads for drainage at 5.18 m from the ground. In addition, the whole kiln body has no decorative components. The upper wooden building has carved beams and gorgeous paintings. The ceiling inside the building is thoroughly exposed, and there are oil paintings all over the building beams, columns, tiebeams, and boards, in addition to other carpentry and joinery work (Figure 11). The eaves, doors, and windows also exhibit decoration and painting. The colors painted on the main beam structure, barrier boards, and other components are mainly yellow and green, with landscape paintings, flower and grass patterns, and birds and animals as the main themes. The tiebeam, king post, bracket, Chashou, and other components are mainly green, and the patterns are mainly flowers. The rafters are painted in green colors, contrasting with the red-looking boards. In addition, all of the carving components are painted, such as the sparrow braces, the ends of the beams, and other parts (Figure 12).

It is said that the original paintings were drawn by local folk artists with natural mineral materials, and their paintings are skillful and all-encompassing. In terms of content, the description of Guan Yu accounts for a large proportion, such as “Taoyuan Jieyi”, “Guan Yu Floods Seven Armies”, “Scrape the Poison off the Bone”, and so on, all of which are well-known stories of the Three Kingdoms. This is the embodiment of the educational attribute of the Xiang-ming Pavilion as a religious space for the village [55] and an important expression of the thought of “loyalty and bravery” in Guandi culture. At the same time, there are also paintings such as plum blossoms, orchids, bamboo, and chrysanthemums, which promote Confucianism and the Set of Etiquette [56]. In addition to the paintings and oil decorations, there are three sculptures of Guan Yu, Zhou Cang, and Guan Ping in the south of the temple, and there is a sculpture of Kui Xing in the north. The four sculptures are vivid and lively, with exquisite details, a full composition, and a realistic demeanor, presenting the characters’ own characteristics. These sculptures convey the aspects of traditional cultures, such as loyalty, righteousness, learning, self-cultivation, and respect for propriety [57], and they demonstrate the edifying role played by the building (Figure 13).

Decorations have been made on the roofs of traditional Chinese buildings since ancient times [58]. Their themes are often celestial beings and animals. The roof of the Xiang-ming Pavilion also has ornaments such as Chiwei and animals. However, unlike most buildings in the north, the main ridge of the Xiang-ming Pavilion is decorated with two-story single-eave flush gable roof buildings.

As a matter of fact, the various paintings and oil decorations in Xiang-ming Pavilion are all from traditional Chinese culture, and the civilized values and Confucianism implied in them are the traditional decorative symbols of national identity.

3.2. “Cultural Isomerism” in Architecture

3.2.1. Geomantic Omen

Fengshui (Chinese geomancy) is an intuitive expression of ancient Chinese philosophy and culture in architecture, and it is one of the unique building cultures in China. People pursue stability and balance with the natural ecosystem so that buildings and their surrounding environment not only meet the needs of human physiological nature but also have the function of psychological aesthetic pleasure [59].

Xiaonanzhuang Village has been moved to another place today, and only the Xiang-ming Pavilion remains a record of its former prosperity. At the top of the kiln, in the north of the hall, there is a broken stone tablet, which records the process of building Xiang-ming Pavilion due to the “geomantic omission”. The monument is called the “Building of the Fumo Emperor KuiXing Pavilion Cave and Guan-yin Temple Inscriptions”, and it says: “Originally, the temple was located near a gully, there is a bridge, but has not yet built a cave. The lanes in the south of the bridge directly lead to the water, and there is no barrier to cover the gap.”

Analyzing the layout of the entrance to the village from the perspective of Fengshui, there are two “inauspicious” points. One of the reasons is that river water is yin, and it is a flowing thing. If the gate or entrance faced the river, it would take away all the wealth and good fortune of the village with the flow of water [60]. The second is that the main road of the village faces the Jianhe River, which is “rushing straight” into the village [61]. If it is “rushing straight”, it is unlucky. If it is unlucky, it will produce destruction. Therefore, in order to improve the overall environment at the entrance of the village, the villagers of Xiaonanzhuang raised funds to build the Xiang-ming Pavilion under the direction of knowledgeable people.

As the gate of a prosperous village, the entrance has a very important position in the culture of Fengshui [62]. Therefore, in addition to making up for the shortcomings of running water, the villagers of Xiaonanzhuang also attached great importance to the location and orientation of the Xiang-ming Pavilion. There is a description of the relationship between the direction of a residence and the orientation of a gate in the Eight Residences Zhou Book [63]. It is considered that general residential buildings are mostly situated in the north and face the south, which is known as the “Kan Residence” in Fengshui. Xiang-ming Pavilion, as the “gate” of the village, also follows the Fengshui rule of facing south. In fact, this is not just a superstition. China’s natural geographical environment is located in the low and middle latitudes of the northern hemisphere. Buildings sitting in the north and facing the south can be windward and cool in summer and leeward and sunny in winter [64]. In such a geographical environment, this coincides with the “southward” yearning in Chinese Fengshui culture. Therefore, the orientation of the Xiang-ming Pavilion to the south and north is not only an externalized manifestation of the ancient Chinese belief in geomancy but also a naive cognition of the laws of nature.

In the opinion of the villagers of Xiaonanzhuang, Xiang-ming Pavilion can influence their present and future fortune. From site selection to construction and then use, no effort was spared to ensure that the pavilion followed the principle of pursuing good fortune and avoiding evil. Therefore, the pavilion is not only a physical manifestation of the village’s entrance but also a spiritual support for people’s inner peace and tranquility.

3.2.2. The Set of Etiquette

The Yuci District, where the Xiang-ming Pavilion is located, is a place where Jin merchants’ culture flourished [65]. Influenced by Jin merchants who respected the Set of Etiquette, the architectural layout, scale, and form, as well as the interior space, of the Xiang-ming Pavilion reflect the results of the Set of Etiquette.

In terms of architectural layout, according to the inscription in Xiaonanzhuang Village, during the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty, Xiaonanzhuang was re-planned and renovated. After being built, the village largely formed an axial sequence with the Doumu Temple and Zhenwu Temple in the northernmost part, Xiang-ming Pavilion in the central part, and Guanyin Hall in the southern part. Xiang-ming Pavilion was initially built at the entrance of the village due to Fengshui reasons, but as the village grew in size, its location was shifted from the edge to the center. Under the guidance of the Set of Etiquette, the center is to be honored, and Xiang-ming Pavilion also changed from a gateway that remedied Fengshui deficiencies into a ritual building at the heart of the village.

In terms of the building’s form, rather than having the courtyard pattern most commonly used in ritual buildings [66], the Xiang-ming Pavilion elevates the ritual space through the street doorway on the ground floor, forming a complete vertical space, which causes a sharp contrast with the surrounding buildings, which have their layouts unfolded horizontally. It creates a noble and sacred spiritual atmosphere, highlighting its majesty and status and fully demonstrating the Set of Etiquette and strict hierarchical relationships.

The Set of Etiquette is also reflected in the interior space. It focuses on the order of the middle, so the house of the Xiang-ming Pavilion is mainly in the central bay. The side bays on both sides are symmetrical; the width of the central bay is 3.15 m, and the width of the side bays is 2.10 m, so the central bay is significantly highlighted. The indoor space of the building serves as the main space for worship. The worship platform is placed in the middle of the room, which is exactly on the central axis of the whole village. A statue of the Exorcism Emperor is enshrined in the middle of the platform, and Zhou Cang and Guan Ping are on the left and right sides. The layout of the interior space coincides with the faith of the whole village, which shows that the Set of Etiquette is deeply rooted in people’s hearts.

In addition, Xiang-ming Pavilion, as the central ritual building in Xiaonanzhuang, has not only become the symbol of the village but also visually conveys the edifying meaning of the Set of Etiquette. As the Chinese saying goes, “Rituals are expostulation before they are to be, and laws are punishment after they are to be” [67]. Due to the closed transmission of information in ancient times, the villagers’ literacy level was generally low, so there were few people who knew the law in the village. In order to maintain the order of the society, indoctrination in the Set of Etiquette embedded in the Xiang-ming Pavilion played a great role. The Set of Etiquette, which is based on orderly collective life, required every member of society to follow the norms and constraints of feudal society and drew boundaries that could not be crossed [68]. For a long time, the Set of Etiquette has shaped the way that Chinese people behave, becoming an invisible law in society and the ideological foundation of the traditional Chinese village space. The existence of the pavilion warns people about their lives, accurately expresses their absolute obedience to traditional propriety, restrains people’s behavioral norms, and maintains social stability.

3.2.3. Folk Beliefs

In traditional Chinese villages, religious beliefs are also important spiritual pillars and moral constraints for villagers [69], and they are no less important than the Set of Etiquette. As the commanding point of the village, the Xiang-ming Pavilion forms its visual center and reference point, and it links areas spreading outwards with an intangible cultural force of faith while maintaining the characteristic of the village of “scattered form and gathered spirit” at all times [70]. This faith is a pluralistic, worldly, and naive emotion.

Inscriptions in front of the Xiang-ming Pavilion, “Building of the Fumo Emperor KuiXing Pavilion Cave and Guan-yin Temple Inscriptions,” state: “Kiln more than three zhang. After measuring its regulation, the temple of the Fumo Emperor was built in the upper part, and the interior was also enshrined in Kuixing. The Guan-yin temple south of the bridge was also completed at the same time.” From the inscription, it can be seen that the villagers did not believe in a specific religion, but the belief in multiple gods co-existed with Chinese folk religious beliefs. Chinese folk religion is based on ancient totem worship, and with the progression of history, it has resulted in a mixture of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism [71]. Taoism is the most present of the three because it involves a bottom-up local culture and has a close relationship with ancient totem worship; thus, it is the easiest to interpret and pass on to the folk. This is why the Xiang-ming Pavilion, as the core religious building of the village, enshrines Taoist figures as its main deities.

As Li Zehou pointed out in The Path of Beauty, “The worship of the gods in China is in the center of the habitation, which is closely connected with real life, rather than in a special place detached from worldly life” [72]. Although the Xiang-ming Pavilion is the core of the faith space in Xiaonanzhuang, taking the form of a “point”, and it does not depend on the surrounding residential buildings, which expresses the significant difference between faith and cultural buildings and productive and living buildings, it has never been detached from secular life. The pavilion, together with the square in front of it, the connecting roads, and the surrounding residential buildings, forms the village’s faith and cultural circle. Situated in the geometric center of the village, the pavilion combines with the scenes of life to create a harmonious scene of human and Jinnee coexistence [73]. In addition, the influence of Confucianism has reinforced the tendency for gods and humans to coexist, and the theme of pursuing reality closely links the pavilion to the lives of its inhabitants. As a result, the pavilion became a place for not only major folk activities and religious rituals but also many daily behaviors. For example, villagers dry their grain and crops in the square in front of the pavilion during busy seasons and gather in the square to chat and play in their spare time. All of these make the Jinnee of the Xiang-ming Pavilion participate in the daily life of ordinary people as if faith is not illusory but really exists in life.

3.2.4. Patriarchal Clan Culture

In traditional villages, there is a certain spiritual force that drives the villagers to jointly own, operate and maintain the land where they are born and grow up. This force is the Patriarchal Clan.

The Village Records of Xiaonanzhuang recorded that Xiaonanzhuang was founded in the late Ming Dynasty and was originally known as Taipingzhuang. It was a mixed-surname village dominated by the surname Chen. Nowadays, Xiaonanzhuang has gone through more than ten generations of reproduction, and the blood relations of the village have become more complicated, but traces of the establishment of a Chen ancestral hall still cannot be found. According to the principle of combining the spiritual space of traditional villages centered on ancestral halls and the actual use of Xiaonanzhuang [74], most of the village’s major events, such as ancestor worship and sacrifices, take place in the Xiang-ming Pavilion. From a functional point of view, Xiang-ming Pavilion plays the role of the ancestral hall of Xiaonanzhuang Village. It can be seen that traditional villages in the Yuci area have the spirit of unconstrained formality and pragmatism. Not only can the ancestral hall be used as a symbol of a clan, but the pavilion can also be used as a form of architecture to express the cohesion of a clan.

Generally speaking, ancestral halls are highly valued types of buildings, representing the highest level of local construction at that time, and the materials and designs are also very elaborate [75]. The Xiang-ming Pavilion, as a local ancestral hall, not only expresses the highest technical level of Xiaonanzhuang Village but also has distinctive local characteristics and embodies the collective culture of traditional villages. According to” Building of the Fumo Emperor KuiXing Pavilion Cave and Guan-yin Temple Inscriptions”, “In the 59th year of the Qianlong reign, the country was prosperous and had good harvests in successive years. The rich and prestigious local people summoned the whole village to openly discuss the construction of the Xiang-ming Pavilion, and everyone responded positively and poured out their money to help in the planning of the matter.” It demonstrated that the Xiang-ming Pavilion was built by the village’s prestigious and educated people through the villagers’ joint donations and contributions. The villagers had a high degree of psychological identity with the Xiang-ming Pavilion, and they were naturally willing to actively donate financial resources and enthusiastically provide personnel, so the construction of the Xiang-ming Pavilion intuitively demonstrates the collective culture of traditional villages, which is collaboration, participation, and common interests. This collective culture is another form of expression of the traditional village Patriarchal Clan Culture.

In addition, in order to express the economic strength of the village and the cohesion of the villagers, the expression of the Xiang-ming Pavilion is extremely complex. Although it is a folk building, it has been meticulously carved and decorated without any effort. The internal space of the building and the visible components are full of carvings and paintings. All of the planes are painted with thematic stories of educational significance, which are presented in the form of the fullness of vision without leaving any blank space, fully demonstrating the beauty of the materials and exquisite skills of expression. Conducting major activities in the solemn and exquisite environment in front of the Xiang-ming Pavilion, villagers naturally feel reverence for the clan, awakening their strong identification with their clan lineage and becoming more spiritually attached to the clan’s discipline.

3.2.5. Farming-Reading Culture

The Jinzhong area where Yuci is located is a place where the farming-reading culture prevails [76]. According to the records of Xiaonanzhuang Village, during the Qing Dynasty, the village flourished in the imperial examination system and opened private schools. There were more than forty people, including Juren, Xiucai, and Jinshi, and several of them became officials, with the highest one being awarded the fourth grade of magistrates. This prosperity in education brought a strong cultural atmosphere to Xiaonanzhuang Village. The Kuixing enshrined in Xiang-ming Pavilion, and the plaques hung on the kiln reflect the village’s philosophy of education for the people, which is a product of the combination of the ancient Chinese agrarian society and the culture of teaching and educating.

In addition, plaques, as the unique cultural labels of traditional Chinese buildings, indicate the mood of a building, reveal its theme, and carry the cultural value and spiritual edification function of villages [77]. The word “Yulin” is written on the plaque on the north wall of the Xiang-ming Pavilion, and the word “Xiangming” is carved on the plaque on the south wall of the gate (Figure 14). The meaning of “Yulin” is that carving Yulin on the plaque is not to compare it with Linshu but to pray for the auspiciousness of Wenquxing to bless the civilization of the village [78]. The original meaning of “Xiangming” comes from “I-Ching · Shuoguazhuan”. Its original meaning is “Ligua is a bright hexagram image, and everything yearns for light. The saints face the south and govern the world, so the beautiful meaning of ‘Xiangming’ [79]”.

The north of Xiaonanzhuang Village is inside the village, and the south is outside. The engraving of “Yulin” on the plaque on the north side borrows the name of Linshu to direct the future generations of the village to study hard and obtain an honorary title. The significance of the plaque on the south side, “Xiangming”, is to warn those who have completed their studies and traveled far away from the village, stating that the sages face the south to deal with the political affairs of the country, indicating admiration for those governing the country. Similarly, if the village’s descendants are officials, they should always bear in mind the wise teachings of having a heart for the world and a mind for the light. With the support of cultural insight, Xiang-ming Pavilion itself and its environment carry cultural imagery, combining secular life with the farming-reading culture to reach the noble realm of being close to nature, achieving a depth in life, practicing dedication to reading, and gaining an understanding of reason and righteousness.

4. Discussion

This study found the general construction characteristics of the “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilion in the Yuci area and five factors of “cultural isomerism”. Some scholars [13,14,15,21,22,23,24,25,26] have carried out in-depth studies on the typology, formation mechanisms and technical practices of “kiln–house isomorphic” traditional architecture in Shanxi. Some studies [30,31,32] focused on spatial organization and used the function of the “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilion. Most scholars [27,28,29] are keen to summarize the construction patterns of “kiln–house isomorphic” houses in Jinzhong and seek architectural design strategies that meet modern needs and have traditional regional characteristics. In this study, the research on the morphological characteristics and construction techniques of “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilions in the Yuci area were basically consistent with the conclusions of the other studies mentioned above.

However, most of the current research focuses on architectural forms, spatial relationships, technical practices, and modern translations of some of the types of “kiln–house isomorphic” buildings, and the systematic construction rules of “kiln–house isomorphic” technology in different regions and buildings have not yet been summarized. There is also a lack of research on the traditional Chinese culture embedded in the “kiln–house isomorphic” technique. Through literature analysis, field survey, case analysis, induction and comparison with traditional architecture, this study takes the “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilion in the Yuci area as the subject, deeply analyzes the general characteristics of this construction technology in this area, and further explores the factors of Chinese traditional culture contained in pavilions under the influence of the “kiln–house isomorphic” technology. Starting from the idea of combining tangible and intangible cultural heritages, this study takes the “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilion as an entry point, providing a brand-new way of thinking about the study of this type of architecture in a wider area. In addition, this study systematically analyzes the general construction characteristics of “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilions in the Yuci area and deepens the knowledge of the regional expression of traditional Chinese architecture in types of pavilions. Finally, through the discovery of the cultural factors of the “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilions, this study provides a theoretical basis for the sustainable development and organic renewal of the remaining buildings of the same type.

However, this study has certain shortcomings. The first is that there are few documents and physical materials related to the “kiln–house isomorphic” pavilion in the Yuci area. Thus, the excavation of the historical environment and construction culture of this kind of building may be insufficient. The second is that the existing architecture is a product based on the spirit of practical rationality in ancient China, and the results of its construction have a certain degree of arbitrariness; as such, there may be buildings that do not conform to the current general laws. Therefore, further research is needed to establish systematic results based on modern science.

5. Conclusions

This study takes a pavilion in the Yuci area as the research object; through quantitative and qualitative analyses, five factors of “cultural isomerism” involved in the characteristic of the “kiln–house isomorphism” in this building type are explored.

(1)

The architectural features of the Xiang-ming Pavilion, a typical representative case of the Yuci area, are in line with the general rule of the “kiln–house isomorphic” technology in Shanxi.

(2)

The building type of pavilions under the influence of the “kiln–house isomorphic” technology in the Yuci area also has universal and regional construction characteristics; thus, this can become a new branch of the study of regional architectural heritage in Shanxi.

(3)

Due to the unique combination of the “kiln–house isomorphism”, the pavilions in the Yuci area have produced the phenomenon of “cultural isomerism”. The phenomenon includes five traditional Chinese cultural factors: geomantic omens, the Set of Etiquette, folk beliefs, Patriarchal Clan Culture, and farming-reading culture.