An Approach to Mixture Design and Cost Analysis for Cement Pastes Composed of Class C Fly Ashes for Better Sustainable Construction
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methodology
2.1. Materials
2.2. Research Methodology
2.3. Proposed Equations
3. Analysis and Discussion
4. Cost Analysis
5. Conclusions and Recommendations
- Based on strength and porosity results, a high amount of fly ash utilization in cement paste was possible when considering various workability and testing ages.
- A 30% increase in porosity was reported for lower slump classes (i.e., 50 mm slump), while a 40% increase was obtained for higher slump classes. The porosity ranges from 17 to 22% and 27 to 32% for 40% and 60% fly ash levels, respectively.
- When the w/b ratio changes from 28 to 38%, the porosity increases by 30%. On the other hand, this increase is 20% when the w/b ratio changes from 28% to 34%.
- The water content and porosity are two main factors in the fresh and hardened state, respectively, which control the overall behavior of the HVFA cement paste composites. The high lime fly ash was more sensitive to the water-to-binder ratio in terms of variations in the slump and porosity.
- A 50% decrease in compressive strength was reported for lower slump classes for higher fly ash replacement rates. However, this increase was reduced to 20% for lower replacement levels. A 20% decrease was reported in compressive strength when the fly ash level was 40%. The reduction becomes less after 56 days.
- When the fly ash amount increases from 40% to 60%, the compressive strength reduces by 15%. On the other hand, this reduction is 10% for 20% fly ash replacement.
- The same trend was also valid for the flexural strength. An average 10% reduction in both strengths was reported at later ages (i.e., beyond 56 days).
- Compressive strength and durability properties of the final composites were increased by reductions in porosity; however, this improvement depended on the slump value.
- Correlations between the workability (w/b, slump) and physical (porosity, fly ash content) and mechanical (UCS, FS) properties of cement paste composites were strongly linked, enabling novel mixtures to be designed with target slump and strength values.
- The economic gain of using FA60C40 and FA40C60 instead of FA0C100 were 58% and 39%, respectively, which revealed the significant economic advantage of using fly ash in cement pastes.
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Slump (mm) | Age (Days) | Property | 100 C | 100 FA | 80 FA-20 C | 60 FA-40 C | 40 FA-60 C | 20 FA-80 C |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
50 | 7 | DUW | 19.68 | 15.41 | 15.7 | 16.63 | 18.51 | 18.38 |
ASG | 2.57 | 2.19 | 2.2 | 2.53 | 2.21 | 2.59 | ||
% Abs. | 16.14 | 40.38 | 25.63 | 32.73 | 13.26 | 22.54 | ||
Porosity | 0.33 | 0.46 | 0.43 | 0.45 | 0.37 | 0.35 | ||
28 | DUW | 19.74 | 14.7 | 15.73 | 15.97 | 18.68 | 18.22 | |
ASG | 2.55 | 2.18 | 2.42 | 2.22 | 2.21 | 2.56 | ||
% Abs. | 15.79 | 38.02 | 27.73 | 24.8 | 13.15 | 21.63 | ||
Porosity | 0.29 | 0.44 | 0.40 | 0.39 | 0.36 | 0.34 | ||
56 | DUW | 19.77 | 14.74 | 15.61 | 16.29 | 18.35 | 18.22 | |
ASG | 2.55 | 2.18 | 2.18 | 2.54 | 2.32 | 2.51 | ||
% Abs. | 15.98 | 33.01 | 22.06 | 28.8 | 12.51 | 20.87 | ||
Porosity | 0.29 | 0.41 | 0.38 | 0.35 | 0.32 | 0.31 | ||
90 | DUW | 20.04 | 14.4 | 15.49 | 16.46 | 18.6 | 18.29 | |
ASG | 2.58 | 2.15 | 2.08 | 2.46 | 2.24 | 2.61 | ||
% Abs. | 15.77 | 25.86 | 21.69 | 28.6 | 9.51 | 19.58 | ||
Porosity | 0.25 | 0.36 | 0.31 | 0.30 | 0.28 | 0.26 |
Slump (mm) | Age (Days) | Property | 100 C | 100 FA | 80 FA-20 C | 60 FA-40 C | 40 FA-60 C | 20 FA-80 C |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
100 | 7 | DUW | 20.31 | 15.56 | 16.03 | 17.14 | 17.99 | 19.02 |
ASG | 2.63 | 2.57 | 2.42 | 2.42 | 2.56 | 2.62 | ||
% Abs. | 15.29 | 46.37 | 38.57 | 29.72 | 27.35 | 22.86 | ||
Porosity | 0.29 | 0.54 | 0.49 | 0.42 | 0.41 | 0.37 | ||
28 | DUW | 20.26 | 15.28 | 15.5 | 16.56 | 17.58 | 18.79 | |
ASG | 2.64 | 2.54 | 2.39 | 2.4 | 2.56 | 2.61 | ||
% Abs. | 12.04 | 42.45 | 34.88 | 26.88 | 25.32 | 22.74 | ||
Porosity | 0.28 | 0.52 | 0.45 | 0.39 | 0.38 | 0.37 | ||
56 | DUW | 20.94 | 15.06 | 15.26 | 16.25 | 17.71 | 18.92 | |
ASG | 2.64 | 2.39 | 2.38 | 2.33 | 2.56 | 2.48 | ||
% Abs. | 14.88 | 38.08 | 33.34 | 26.88 | 22.78 | 18.35 | ||
Porosity | 0.28 | 0.48 | 0.44 | 0.39 | 0.37 | 0.31 | ||
90 | DUW | 20.74 | 14.08 | 15.19 | 16.73 | 17.89 | 18.94 | |
ASG | 2.66 | 2.34 | 2.39 | 2.19 | 2.48 | 2.46 | ||
% Abs. | 15.03 | 35.93 | 20.46 | 22.69 | 15.09 | 17.13 | ||
Porosity | 0.27 | 0.46 | 0.38 | 0.35 | 0.34 | 0.3 |
Slump (mm) | Age (Days) | Property | 100 C | 100 FA | 80 FA-20 C | 60 FA-40 C | 40 FA-60 C | 20 FA-80 C |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
150 | 7 | DUW | 19.7 | 15.93 | 16 | 16.71 | 17.6 | 18.63 |
ASG | 2.69 | 2.69 | 2.46 | 2.57 | 2.48 | 2.54 | ||
% Abs. | 22.42 | 45.69 | 36.57 | 35.9 | 26.16 | 23.72 | ||
Porosity | 0.36 | 0.55 | 0.47 | 0.45 | 0.39 | 0.38 | ||
28 | DUW | 19.64 | 14.91 | 15.25 | 16.17 | 17.26 | 18.27 | |
ASG | 2.56 | 2.65 | 2.41 | 2.66 | 2.44 | 2.56 | ||
% Abs. | 18 | 44.94 | 33.02 | 27.08 | 23.08 | 22.28 | ||
Porosity | 0.32 | 0.52 | 0.44 | 0.42 | 0.36 | 0.36 | ||
56 | DUW | 19.6 | 14.72 | 15.43 | 16.16 | 17.57 | 18.31 | |
ASG | 2.59 | 2.47 | 2.4 | 2.36 | 2.44 | 2.56 | ||
% Abs. | 17.17 | 43.29 | 32.49 | 28.51 | 19.64 | 22.55 | ||
Porosity | 0.31 | 0.51 | 0.44 | 0.4 | 0.34 | 0.33 | ||
90 | DUW | 19.4 | 13.81 | 15.26 | 16.25 | 17.73 | 18.63 | |
ASG | 2.62 | 2.43 | 2.46 | 2.57 | 2.33 | 2.54 | ||
% Abs. | 11.84 | 39.09 | 25.47 | 20.28 | 18.76 | 26.63 | ||
Porosity | 0.24 | 0.48 | 0.39 | 0.34 | 0.33 | 0.32 |
Slump (mm) | Age (Days) | Property | 100 C | 100 FA | 80 FA-20 C | 60 FA-40 C | 40 FA-60 C | 20 FA-80 C |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
250 | 7 | DUW | 19.92 | N/A | 16.45 | 16.45 | 18.36 | 19.04 |
ASG | 2.62 | N/A | 2.55 | 2.46 | 2.42 | 2.55 | ||
% Abs. | 20.79 | N/A | 34.79 | 27.07 | 21.27 | 22.92 | ||
Porosity | 0.37 | N/A | 0.47 | 0.4 | 0.35 | 0.37 | ||
28 | DUW | 20.3 | 14.92 | 16.04 | 15.88 | 18.17 | 18.65 | |
ASG | 2.53 | 2.43 | 2.46 | 2.44 | 2.46 | 2.57 | ||
% Abs. | 20.86 | 42.43 | 33.72 | 26.64 | 20.69 | 22.43 | ||
Porosity | 0.30 | 0.51 | 0.45 | 0.38 | 0.34 | 0.33 | ||
56 | DUW | 20.32 | 13.93 | 16.49 | 16.99 | 18.32 | 18.67 | |
ASG | 2.62 | 2.48 | 2.47 | 2.33 | 2.21 | 2.6 | ||
% Abs. | 18.37 | 35.3 | 32.37 | 25.72 | 18.12 | 21.85 | ||
Porosity | 0.27 | 0.46 | 0.44 | 0.37 | 0.30 | 0.29 | ||
90 | DUW | 20.26 | 13.49 | 15.74 | 16.69 | 18.48 | 19.03 | |
ASG | 2.55 | 2.46 | 2.47 | 2.19 | 2.4 | 2.6 | ||
% Abs. | 20.21 | 37.71 | 32.92 | 23.45 | 19.55 | 21.65 | ||
Porosity | 0.23 | 0.45 | 0.43 | 0.34 | 0.25 | 0.24 |
Slump (mm) | Age (Days) | 100 C | 100 FA | 80 FA-20 C | 60 FA-40 C | 40 FA-60 C | 20 FA-80 C |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
250 mm UCS (MPa) | 7 | 15.4 | N/A | 4.2 | 9.8 | 9.0 | 11.0 |
28 | 17.5 | 1.0 | 10.6 | 10.5 | 18.1 | 13.4 | |
56 | 18.6 | 1.1 | 14.1 | 11.1 | 19.6 | 14.8 | |
90 | 22.8 | 1.9 | 14.8 | 13 | 21.1 | 15.9 | |
150 mm UCS (MPa) | 7 | 7.8 | 0.1 | 1.3 | 2.3 | 7.6 | 14.2 |
28 | 13.7 | 1.5 | 10.3 | 9.1 | 11.4 | 16.7 | |
56 | 14.9 | 2.5 | 11.5 | 9.6 | 17.6 | 22.4 | |
90 | 16.6 | 3.3 | 12.3 | 14.7 | 19.9 | 24.4 | |
100 mm UCS (MPa) | 7 | 11.2 | 0.1 | 3.1 | 7.0 | 11.0 | 6.8 |
28 | 14.6 | 1.0 | 7.1 | 16.0 | 15.0 | 13.2 | |
56 | 15.2 | 1.8 | 8.7 | 16.3 | 16.8 | 14.8 | |
90 | 16.7 | 2.3 | 15.6 | 21.2 | 17.7 | 29.8 | |
50 mm UCS (MPa) | 7 | 11.4 | 3.8 | 4.3 | 7.2 | 8.1 | 7.0 |
28 | 16.4 | 8.2 | 9.5 | 13.7 | 10.5 | 14.1 | |
56 | 16.8 | 8.5 | 12.2 | 18.7 | 17.6 | 26.0 | |
90 | 18.1 | 14.7 | 13.7 | 19.7 | 21.3 | 26.9 |
Slump (mm) | Age (Days) | 100 C | 100 FA | 80 FA-20 C | 60 FA-40 C | 40 FA-60 C | 20 FA-80 C |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
250 mm FS (MPa) | 7 | 4.689 | N/A | 1.666 | 4.068 | 5.641 | 5.879 |
28 | 7.452 | 0.424 | 2.133 | 5.506 | 7.431 | 7.783 | |
56 | 9.108 | 0.766 | 3.519 | 6.914 | 9.325 | 8.001 | |
90 | 12.523 | 0.952 | 4.978 | 7.845 | 9.895 | 8.632 | |
150 mm FS (MPa) | 7 | 3.189 | 0.29 | 0.787 | 1.170 | 3.788 | 6.490 |
28 | 4.337 | 0.921 | 2.981 | 4.026 | 6.448 | 8.518 | |
56 | 5.506 | 1.128 | 3.881 | 4.999 | 6.852 | 8.880 | |
90 | 5.744 | 1.573 | 4.150 | 5.662 | 8.601 | 9.822 | |
100 mm FS (MPa) | 7 | 7.421 | 0.34 | 1.511 | 5.030 | 5.361 | 4.119 |
28 | 10.671 | 0.528 | 3.198 | 8.104 | 7.048 | 7.597 | |
56 | 10.909 | 1.118 | 3.974 | 8.301 | 7.431 | 7.876 | |
90 | 11.126 | 1.387 | 4.150 | 10.277 | 8.663 | 8.146 | |
50 mm FS (MPa) | 7 | 6.396 | N/A | 2.691 | 2.950 | 5.320 | 4.078 |
28 | 7.276 | 0.424 | 4.606 | 4.658 | 5.392 | 6.386 | |
56 | 7.804 | 0.766 | 5.248 | 5.279 | 6.148 | 6.862 | |
90 | 8.208 | 0.952 | 5.682 | 5.372 | 6.500 | 8.032 |
Group | Equation | R2 | Figure |
---|---|---|---|
100 C | Slump = 4−29(w/b)20.867 | 0.95 | Figure 3 |
80 C + 20 FA | Slump = 2−14(w/b)10.157 | 0.99 | Figure 3 |
60 C + 40 FA | Slump = 2−16(w/b)11.56 | 0.89 | Figure 3 |
40 C + 60 FA | Slump = 5−14(w/b)9.73 | 0.71 | Figure 3 |
20 C + 80 FA | Slump = 5.02 (w/b)2 − 343.99 (w/b) + 5893.3 | 0.94 | Figure 3 |
100 FA | Slump = 3.89 (w/b)2 − 296.69 (w/b) + 5677.7 | 0.94 | Figure 3 |
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Characteristic and Composition (%) | Soma Fly Ash (Type C) | Cement |
---|---|---|
Specific gravity | 2.07 | 3.09 |
Blaine fineness (cm2/g) | 2062 | 3050 |
SiO2 | 43.72 | 19.24 |
SiO2 (insoluble) | – | 0.71 |
Al2O3 | 20.11 | 4.12 |
Fe2O3 | 5.45 | 3.49 |
CaO | 20.76 | 63.70 |
MgO | 2.09 | 1.91 |
SO3 | 1.82 | 2.52 |
LOI * | 2.42 | 3.52 |
Group | Slump | w/b |
---|---|---|
100% FA * | 50 | 0.38 |
100 | 0.42 | |
150 | 0.44 | |
250 | 0.46 | |
80% FA—20% Cement | 50 | 0.37 |
100 | 0.39 | |
150 | 0.40 | |
250 | 0.42 | |
60% FA—40% Cement | 50 | 0.35 |
100 | 0.38 | |
150 | 0.39 | |
250 | 0.41 | |
40% FA—60% Cement | 50 | 0.33 |
100 | 0.34 | |
150 | 0.35 | |
250 | 0.37 | |
20% FA—80% Cement | 50 | 0.32 |
100 | 0.34 | |
150 | 0.36 | |
250 | 0.385 | |
100% Cement | 50 | 0.28 |
100 | 0.29 | |
150 | 0.295 | |
250 | 0.30 |
Material | Mass Required (kg/m3) | Unit Cost (USD/kg) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FA0C100 | FA100C0 | FA80C20 | FA60C40 | FA40C60 | FA20C80 | |||
Cement | 1120 | 0 | 224 | 448 | 672 | 896 | 0.114 | |
Fly Ash (A: Up to 20 km) | 0 | 980 | 784 | 588 | 392 | 196 | 0.00071 | |
Fly Ash (B: 20–100 km) | 0 | 980 | 784 | 588 | 392 | 196 | 0.00143 | |
Fly Ash (C: 100+ km) | 0 | 980 | 784 | 588 | 392 | 196 | 0.00255 | |
Water | 528 | 528 | 528 | 528 | 528 | 528 | 0.0004 | |
Total Cost (USD/m3) | Category A | 127.89 | 0.91 | 26.30 | 51.70 | 77.10 | 102.49 | |
Category B | 127.89 | 1.61 | 26.87 | 52.12 | 77.38 | 102.64 | ||
Category C | 127.89 | 2.71 | 27.75 | 52.78 | 77.82 | 102.86 |
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Egemen, M.; Ali, F.; Aydin, E. An Approach to Mixture Design and Cost Analysis for Cement Pastes Composed of Class C Fly Ashes for Better Sustainable Construction. Buildings 2024, 14, 373. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14020373
Egemen M, Ali F, Aydin E. An Approach to Mixture Design and Cost Analysis for Cement Pastes Composed of Class C Fly Ashes for Better Sustainable Construction. Buildings. 2024; 14(2):373. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14020373
Chicago/Turabian StyleEgemen, Mehmedali, Farhad Ali, and Ertug Aydin. 2024. "An Approach to Mixture Design and Cost Analysis for Cement Pastes Composed of Class C Fly Ashes for Better Sustainable Construction" Buildings 14, no. 2: 373. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14020373