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Article

Toward Nearly Zero-Waste Architecture: Innovation, Application, and Practice of Construction Methods Using Natural Materials

by
Shu-Chen Tsai
1,
Xue-Fang Zhang
1,2 and
Yao-Tan Chang
3,*
1
College of Arts and Design, Jimei University, Xiamen 361021, China
2
Faculty of Innovation and Design, City University of Macau, Macau 999078, China
3
YoChing Space Design Studio, Pingtung 900061, Taiwan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Buildings 2024, 14(6), 1584; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14061584
Submission received: 31 March 2024 / Revised: 24 May 2024 / Accepted: 28 May 2024 / Published: 30 May 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Zero-Emission, Hazard-Resilient Buildings and Infrastructure: Advanced Material, Construction, and Energy Systems)
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Abstract

:
The goals of this study are to propose a method to minimize the waste of buildings’ exterior walls and to respond to practical technical reports on disaster resistance and reductions in resource extraction. This study’s scientific value is its testing of new nearly zero-waste materials and their construction methods for external walls. Four cases using a bamboo and pozzolana wall construction method between 2016 and 2021 in Southern Taiwan were examined. The results show that the materials can be decomposed on site to achieve the goal of nearly zero waste. Steel structures and exterior walls can provide toughness and breathability to resist earthquakes and hot and humid climates. Traditional construction techniques contain elements of technological change and can transcend outdated regulations. The exterior wall materials in this study can replace the local high-carbon-emitting mining industry and are a feasible way to actively respond to net-zero emissions.

1. Introduction

The core principal of the circular economy (CE) is that throughput must be minimized, with a focus on stock maintenance and any technological changes that may result in less production and consumption [1]. Although the concept of the CE was proposed more than half a century ago, current economic growth is still driven by increasing labor productivity, which has been partly achieved by economies of scale and partly by utilizing natural resources [2].
More than 50% of the world’s natural resources are used in the construction industry [3,4]. However, the linear economic model adopted by the construction industry puts great pressure on natural resources at the mining end. The latest research indicates that the increase in material mining has caused the global circular economic rate to decline year by year, to only 7.2% in 2023, which means that more than 90% of materials will be wasted and lost, or they will be fixed in buildings and cannot be recycled [5]. Thus, the construction industry has the characteristics of high energy consumption and a low recycling rate [6,7]. In 2022, buildings were responsible for 34% of global energy demand and 37% of energy- and process-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Despite a 3.5% reduction in energy intensity, overall energy demand and emissions rose by about 1% from 2021 [8]. Another feature is that high emissions from the production of building materials and building construction also potentially contribute to global warming [6,9,10], about 21% of global greenhouse gas emissions [8].
In 2023, just three materials—concrete (11%), steel (10%), and aluminum (2%)—were responsible for 23% of the total global emissions (mostly from the built environment) [11]. Among them, the concrete production chain from mining to production is a major contributor to carbon emissions [12,13,14]. The most unavoidable issue is the final disposal of construction waste [3,15,16]. At present, the final disposal method of construction waste in most countries is burial or land reclamation [3,17]. Even when waste reduction measures are consciously implemented [18], they cost a lot of money and face the problem of insufficient space [3,19,20].
The concept of the CE redefines waste as an object that adds value without adding cost [21]. Waste may also be a by-product of the production process [3]. “Construction waste” is a material or product that needs “to be transported elsewhere from the construction site or used on the site itself other than the intended specific purpose of the project due to damage, excess or nonuse or which cannot be used due to noncompliance with the specifications, or which is a by-product of the construction process” [22]. It can include remaining mud, sand, stone, dirt, brick, tile, concrete, asphalt concrete, timber, bamboo, paper, glass, pottery and porcelain, plastic, and metal [20]. Some countries also define earth, stone, concrete blocks, bricks, etc., produced by building demolition or new construction as useful resources [23]. This indicates that there is still no consensus on the definition of construction waste among various countries, and measures can be adapted to local conditions. Concrete accounts for the largest amount of all construction waste; its proportion in demolition waste is 48.53% [20], which has the greatest adverse impact on the environment.
Because the reinforced concrete (RC) structure is an integrated project, the cost of dismantling and repairing is greater than building a new one. Therefore, the recycling process mostly waits until the entire building is demolished before starting to reuse concrete waste. Therefore, most research focuses on its reuse [24,25,26] to slow down mining. However, there are still feasible models in the circular economy such as maintain, prolong, redistribute, refurbishment, remanufacture, etc. [27]. RC buildings can only use the reuse method, which reflects the weakness of its structural integrity, which is the result of “cradle to grave”. But buildings can be divided into different parts, such as the foundation, structure, exterior walls, space separation, and roof. Each part of the building has a different life cycle. For example, the foundation and structure should have a service life of 200 years, so they must be durable; the exterior wall has a lifespan of 30–60 years and must be dismantled or renovated to match the longevity of the foundation and structure [28]. Therefore, the combination of different structural forms can correspond to various possibilities of circular economy. In any case, the focus of circular economics should return to waste minimization and any technological changes that can reduce extraction [1]. The UN Environment Program and Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction also proposed that building renovations must be more comprehensive and extensive to achieve a common vision of “a net-zero, resilient buildings” [8,29].
Asia remains the world’s most disaster-hit region from weather-, climate-, and water-related hazards [30]. Taiwan, an island, was once rated as one of “The World’s Most Vulnerable Cities For Natural Disasters” [31]. It is a prototype of a nearly circular economy and must have its own sustainable system. According to the latest research report published by Taiwan’s National Science and Technology Council, if conditions for man-made greenhouse gas emissions continue, the number of days with temperatures exceeding 36 °C will increase by 75 days, and summers will last for up to seven months. Warming will also increase dryness. The gap between wet seasons will also increase the frequency of droughts and extreme rainfall [32]. Once warming intensifies, existing RC buildings will inevitably pose challenges to the safety and comfort of residents.
However, the vast majority of buildings in Taiwan use RC structures, which generate the largest amount of waste and are the least sustainable form of construction. Because concrete raw materials are mined in large quantities, local materials have a price advantage, but their energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions are higher than those of wood by 1.9 and 2.6 times, respectively [6,33]. Furthermore, buildings in Taiwan face earthquakes and typhoons, so the design specifications are formulated to improve the safety performance of buildings against natural disasters [34,35,36]. Since the 921 earthquake (21 September 1999: the earthquake was the largest earthquake to occur in Taiwan in a century; the Richter scale was 7.3), in addition to reviewing the improvement in the seismic resistance coefficient of various regions and enhancing the strength of earthquake-resistant design, public facilities are also required to have a 25% increase in their bearing capacity compared to ordinary buildings and should adopt resilient designs [37].
If only the factors of safety and lowest price are weighed, only RC buildings will appear on the construction market. The problem of concrete waste will exist, and the CE will not be realized unless there is a new path toward integrating low-cost and resilient technological changes that reduce extraction. Trying new materials to innovate low-industrial construction techniques and lower costs is an exciting challenge for the construction industry. The earthquake-resistant effect of plant fibers on masonry buildings and the above two innovative characteristics have also been confirmed [38,39,40].
The inconsistency between building regulations and environmental sustainability has been questioned over the last century [41,42]. A possible explanation for this is that outdated laws and regulations pose a major obstacle to how buildings respond to disasters [43]. In 2016, the government of Taiwan passed an act that put a focus on the CE [44]. One strategy in Taiwan is to seek multi-stakeholder cooperation in CE buildings [45]. Most of these cases involve official cooperation between governments and enterprises. The technology still needs to be popularized among the people in order to realize the benefits of a CE. The positive environmental benefits of preventing the generation of construction waste from the source have been confirmed [16].
However, most research is devoted to the design or establishment of methods [4]. On the contrary, current research lacks practical experience reports in buildings to support the entire application basis of the CE, especially various feasible modes in the CE except reuse. The aim of this study is to propose a method to minimize waste in building facades, and the scientific value of this study lies in its testing of new near-zero-waste materials and their facade construction methods. The outline of this research is as follows: First, we propose a practical report on building exterior walls that responds to disaster resistance (especially earthquakes and hot and humid climates) and reduces resource extraction. Second, we propose an analysis of technical data and price advantages of exterior wall material changes.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

Taiwan is a long mountainous island with a long north–south and narrow east–west mountain. The total length from north to south is about 400 km (Figure 1); the plain area accounts for only 30% of the island [46]. The geographical location of Taiwan’s main island is 120° E to 122° E east longitude and 22° N to 25° N north latitude. And it is located in a tropical and subtropical geographical area, which is characterized by rain and heat in summer at the same time. This area is subject to the threat of typhoons all year [47,48,49]. According to historical data, Taiwan experienced 223 typhoons from 1684 to 1887, 31 of which were disasters that struck Southern Taiwan [50,51]. From 1897 to 1945, the country experienced a total of 178 typhoons, 13 of which caused serious disasters in Southern Taiwan [52,53,54]. The cases in this study were carried out in Pingtung County in Southern Taiwan (Figure 1). As the Pingtung plain is located between a fault zone and a trench, it forms a complete geographical area [55,56,57]. The disaster events in the study area in recent years have mainly been caused by typhoons. Between 2010 and 2021, a total of 16 typhoons and 10 heavy rains caused disasters in Pingtung County [58]. The county has the Chaozhou Fault Zone and the Hengchun Fault Zone. Between 1936 and 2023, a total of 16 earthquake disasters occurred, with the maximum earthquake magnitude being 7.1 on the Richter scale [58]. This study area has a maximum water output of surface and groundwater (including underlying water), as well as natural energy due to the intersection of the Chaozhou fault zone and typhoons [47,59], with a plain terrain, high temperature, humid climate, and uneven heavy rainfall [48,60].

2.2. Material and Practice Detail

The external walls of traditional architecture in Taiwan are mostly composed of woven bamboo and pozzolana [61,62]. Exterior walls made of bamboo and pozzolana are combined using a bamboo weaving technique, which are tough and breathable [63]; walls are weaved, and then pozzolana is applied to isolate them from moisture. A study also points out the environmental sustainability of bamboo and pozzolana walls [64]. Although pozzolana has disappeared with the decline in traditional architecture [65], the durability and safety of pozzolana are unmatched by modern materials [66]. Bamboo and pozzolana walls are resistant to earthquakes, humidity, and heat and can adapt to the rain and heat of the island climate. They are representative of Taiwanese vernacular architecture.
Pozzolana was first used by the Dutch when they built Zeelandia (1627 AD) in Southern Taiwan [67,68]. However, bamboo easily rots when exposed to moisture, so it must be covered with external materials to resist the hot and humid climate [69,70]. The early pozzolana materials were cemented with glutinous rice paste, lime, and brown sugar, and fine sand and oyster shells were used as aggregates [67,68,71]. Coastal inhabitants used fired oyster powder instead of lime [68]. The residents in Taiwan used their knowledge to create a mixture of lime, glutinous rice pulp, and sand called pozzolana (in Taiwanese, it is called “San-Ho-Tu”) [71,72]. Because of concerns about secondary damage to historic relics, glutinous rice paste and brown sugar are used as cementing materials for the preservation [67,73,74]. Excitingly, the latest research also proposes mortars that can ensure compatibility with historic masonry structures, helping to protect and enhance historical and architectural heritage that is particularly vulnerable to environmental and seismic effects [38]. This study uses modern cementitious materials, a kind of polymer-resin-modified cement, to replace glutinous rice paste and brown sugar because of the high mortar strength, low water permeability, and weather resistance [75], which meets the functionality required for exterior walls. The use of lime and oyster shell powder follows traditional practices.
There are many types of high-quality bamboo in Taiwan, and it is the most widely used forestry material after wood [76]. It is also a material widely used in building structures [66,77,78]. The bamboo species that this study chose to investigate was Phyllostachys reticulata (Rupr.) K. Koch (called “Guizhu” in Taiwanese), which is the most utilized bamboo species in Taiwan due to its favorable architectural characteristics, resilience, and ease of processing. “Reticulata” means “reticulated”. Bamboo is widely used in Taiwan. There have been experimental reports on the physical properties of the material for a long time, showing that Guizhu has good mechanical properties [77]. Experimental data prove that the parallel fiber strength of bamboo is much higher than the splitting strength [79]. The longitudinal fracture toughness is also higher than that of common commercial wood on the market, but the vertical grain fracture toughness is lower than that of other materials [80]. Therefore, due to the nature of splitting, although some scholars suggest that tying is the best option [81], in this study, stainless steel self-tapping screws were used to fix the bamboo strips (Figure 2a), taking into account the toughness of the vertical and horizontal planes. In recent years, in response to the sustainability issue of building materials, bamboo has become the first choice of building material due to its renewability and superior performance as a structural material [78]. The material testing of bamboo with pozzolana walls has also been verified by academic institutions, and they are considered to have positive benefits for the environment [82,83,84,85,86,87,88].
Strips of the bamboo (Figure 2c) were made using the Osmanthus bamboo variety in Zhushan, Nanto, in Central Taiwan. The width of the bamboo strips was about 2.5 cm, their thickness was about 0.5 cm, and the length of each piece was about 240 cm. The strips were made of original materials and were not preserved, smoked, or modified in any way. Except for the Su family’s bamboo strips, which were locked on the C-shaped steel frame with bolts (Figure 2), the other cases all used iron wires to tie the bamboos strips at the intersections. The three cases in the first stage all adopted shell structures made of only bamboo strips.
The materials for making the pozzolana included hemp plant fiber, coconut fiber, dry straw, rice husk, oyster powder made in Budai, an oyster village in Chiayi County, Central Taiwan (kiln-fired at 800 °C, with a chemical formula of CaO; it has the function of regulating temperature and moisture and is considered a breathable material [89]), waterproof powder, color powder, adhesive, and lime (not all were used in every case). These achieved the functions of connection and bonding in the pozzolana (Table 1). The proportions of the pozzolana varied from case to case. To ensure that the materials were mixed evenly every time, the production process was manually operated with an electric mixer. All materials were mixed in a mixing drum (Figure 3).
The construction process and details of the four cases are listed in Table 2. The basic descriptions of the four study cases are listed in Table 3. The pozzolana material list for the four cases is detailed in Table 4. The first stage of all three cases was the adoption of a shell structure to respond to the many earthquakes in Taiwan (in the past 10 years, there have been about 1000 earthquakes felt every year [90]).

3. Results

3.1. Nearly Zero Waste

The tradition of vernacular architecture has become a source of inspiration for leading architects and has been proven to achieve architectural goals for protecting the environment. However, traditional architectural knowledge and design and management factors are sometimes ignored [91].
In the case of the compost toilet, part of the roof collapsed 2 years after completion, during continuous heavy rainfall in May 2023. In the construction process, there were two reasons for the collapse. The first reason was the shape defect of the bamboo weaving. The compost toilet was a cylinder joined to a half-cylinder, and the damage occurred at the connection between the two spaces. The problem was not due to a joint error but to an insufficient slope.
We started to apply the pozzolana after all the bamboo weaving was completed. The bamboo weaving on the roof was too flat, and the roof surface sank during the drying process, easily accumulating water. Continuous rains caused damage to the roof. The second reason for the collapse was the lack of waterproofing. The compost toilet was the only structure in this study that was not waterproof. In this case, the main reason was to test whether pozzolana mixed with a higher proportion of adhesive had a waterproofing effect. The results show that the durability was insufficient. Therefore, waterproofing engineering is still a necessary procedure. After a year (May 2024), the collapsed wall will naturally decompose into mud on the land; it will not become waste and will not need to be transported for burial or incineration.
In all four cases, all the materials could be collected and decomposed on site. Only the main structure above the ground floor of Su’s house was made of steel, the energy consumption and carbon emissions of which are both less than that of RC structures [6].

3.2. Technological Changes

According to Taiwan’s building regulations, doors, windows, openings, and balconies are not allowed on exterior walls immediately adjacent to the neighboring land [92]. Exterior walls with a setback area of 1.5 m must be certified for one hour of fire resistance, and exterior walls with a setback area of 3 m must be certified for half an hour of fire resistance [93]. The above building regulations stipulate that buildings must be fireproof structures with limited combustibility of the exterior walls. Therefore, to comply with regulations, reduce costs, and save construction time, most builders use reinforced concrete as the main material. The current orientation toward inertia, linearity, and passive management is likely to result in outdated regulations.
The north exterior wall of Su’s house is adjacent to the neighbor’s land, so there are no doors, windows, or openings, in line with the regulations. However, the south exterior wall is set back 1 m, and a certificate for one hour of fire protection time is required. According to the regulations, the aging of fireproof materials must also pass approval by the relevant authorities; however, this is time-consuming and expensive. To break through the restrictions of regulations, the method adopted for the exterior wall of Su’s house was to place 5 cm of fireproof rock wool between the inner and outer layers of the bamboo and pozzolana wall (Figure 4). The exterior layer was then coated with a waterproof coating, and the outermost layer was covered with lime pozzolana to protect the waterproof coating and match the color plan of the building.
However, similar to the results of other studies such as [94,95], the dry shrinkage of the lime was very significant. The day after the application of pozzolana on the exterior of Su’s house was complete, tiny cracks on the surface became clearly visible, and the walls had to be repaired with a second layer. We could have followed the advice of other practitioners [95] and chosen to carry out construction on cloudy days, in high-humidity weather, or to spray water after construction to reduce the occurrence of cracks. However, the locations of all the cases in this study were in Southern Taiwan, where the weather is mostly dry and hot, with high evapotranspiration [96]. Moreover, the construction period inevitably spanned the rainy season from June to September. The precipitation in the study area is characterized by sudden heavy rainfall, so construction is difficult. Therefore, the processes of weaving bamboo and applying pozzolana for exterior walls must be arranged during the non-rainy season. However, in addition to properly arranging the construction time, we also found that increasing the use of fiber can also reduce the occurrence of cracks. However, too much fiber can also cause the surface to be too rough. This study shows the best proportions of various materials (Table 4).
The idea for the construction method for Su’s house came from the construction method of indoor fireproof partitions, especially those in large shopping malls, department stores, offices, etc. The advantages of our method are fast and dry construction and a lower price. This study improved the method in order to adapt to the practice of building exterior walls, retaining their fire-resistant characteristics, successfully complying with the restrictions of regulations, legally obtaining a construction license, and obtaining a use license after the construction was complete.

3.3. Price Competitiveness

The three cases in the first phase are landscape facilities. They were all covered with pozzolana on the inside and outside after the bamboo weaving was complete in an attempt to create structures with homogeneous materials. The exterior wall structure of Su’s house was made up of two layers of bamboo weaving sandwiching fireproof rock wool to conform to the architecture regulatory requirements. Moreover, except for the adhesive and waterproof powder, which were chemical compositions, the materials used in these four cases were all-natural materials. Except for the lime mined from natural mining areas, the other materials were all by-product materials. For example, coconut fiber is waste from the production of coconut water, rice husk is waste from rice mills, oyster powder is waste from fishing villages, and waterproof powder is sediment from reservoirs.
Comparing the cost of Su’s house to that of houses with the same exterior wall area, the cost of the pozzolana exterior wall was 95.33 USD/m2, slightly less than the cost of using reinforced concrete exterior walls (98.65 USD/m2). However, the same exterior wall area (307 m2) of Su’s house reduced the total amounts of materials used to 14,970 kg of steel, 36.84 m3 of concrete, and 3.07 m3 of cement and sand. The entire structure was made of bamboo strips instead of steel and coconut fiber, rice husk, oyster powder, waterproof powder, adhesive, and lime instead of concrete. In addition to requiring fireproof rock wool to comply with the fire protection regulations, all exterior walls had a lower unit price for the structural layer and waterproof layer, which was constructed using pozzolana (Table 5). Although the total exterior wall thickness is 21 cm, which is more than the 12 cm of ordinary reinforced concrete exterior walls, the overall weight is lighter. Additionally, the flexibility of which material to substitute is high, so it is not subject to monopoly. This indicates that pozzolana exterior walls can break through the price monopoly of reinforced concrete materials and have the potential to promote advantages for public use.

4. Discussion

4.1. Process Safety and Environmental Protection

The bamboo and pozzolana wall method used in these four cases has lowered the technical threshold of construction, which makes the construction process safer and more environmentally friendly. For example, lime is replaced with oyster shell powder, which reduces the mining of mineral resources and reduces the impact of inhalation during construction (such as burns and pneumoconiosis). Oyster shells used to be aquatic waste that took up space, but now, kiln-fired oyster shell powder can be used to improve soil fertility [97,98]; it can also be added as a building material [99,100,101,102,103]. What is more, calcium carbonate has a potential self-healing function that is still being explored [104]. The most important thing is that, especially in Pingtung County, where this study is located, the supply of sand and gravel accounts for one-third of Taiwan’s construction industry [47], and years of mining have caused harm to the environment. The exterior wall materials in this study have greatly replaced RC aggregate materials required for structure. This study realizes the social significance of practicing net-zero-waste construction in sand and gravel mining areas.
This case study used many natural materials, such as bamboo strips, fibers, rice husks, straw stalks, and soil, which can directly come into contact with the human body. Therefore, children were invited to participate in the bamboo weaving and pozzolana construction process in the four cases (Figure 5). For example, during the construction of the treehouse, all of the school’s students were invited to participate in the construction process, and we guided students in preparing the materials and explained the functions of the various materials in the process. Teachers and students on the campus were free to visit, and students participated in the joint construction of the pozzolana wall. In the co-production stage, the school children helped prepare materials for the treehouse by tearing open the agar fibers that had been made into burlap bags.
In the process of construction, the students learned that all the materials came from nature (such as wood found on campus, natural fibers, and rice husk). All the materials were also sourced from upstream in the supply chain rather than mined at source. Once a facility is damaged beyond repair and the materials are returned to the land, a cradle-to-cradle cycle is completed.

4.2. Evolutionary Architecture for Sustainable Development

The concept of refurbishment is reflected in this study. Parts with a life cycle of 30–60 years should focus on components that can be disassembled or refurbished [7,28]. The exterior walls of this study can be refurbished to match the 200-year service life of the steel structure (Figure 6). The process includes dismantling, sorting, stacking, re-weaving bamboo sheets, mud work on the exterior walls, and fireproof interlayers on the interior. However, refurbishment requires the support of labor, technology, and materials. This study advocates that the evolution of architecture should be reflected in the coupling between people and the environment, such as by creating technological resilience, which is necessary for the sustainability of human resources. In this study, aboriginal workers living near the mountains played a key role. Natural architecture also highlights the special phenomenon of the quality and quantity of aboriginal work at construction sites in Taiwan [105,106]. This study also found that when using many natural materials, what is most needed for on-site construction is familiarity with the materials, and aboriginal workers who maintain a close relationship with nature are currently the human resource best able to perform these tasks in Taiwanese society.
On the other hand, refurbishment also requires a high degree of material support. In Taiwan, the total area of bamboo forests accounts for 4.24% of the island. Bamboo was also the main economic tree species in the early stages of Taiwan’s economic development, and it had the greatest impact on Taiwan’s ecosystem and hydrological environment [107]. There are many types of high-quality bamboo in Taiwan, with abundant output. It was once a commodity traded by Taiwan to more than 80 countries. Moreover, bamboo grows quickly and can be used in just 3 years, and its growth range is wide, so the supply of materials is safe. The rice husk, coconut fiber, straw, etc., used as fiber materials were all locally sourced. Pingtung County is the main producing area of coconut and rice. The materials are easy to obtain, stable and cheap, and can be used for a long time without monopoly. The distance between the origin and the study area was approximately 157.5 km. The bamboo produced is of excellent quality, the processing chain is complete, the output is abundant, and there is no monopoly.
There are two main reasons for the need for familiarity. First, natural materials have unstable characteristics, and one needs to be familiar with them to use them according to their conditions. Second, the aboriginal labor in Taiwan’s construction industry has transformed from labor into the role of skilled workers. Therefore, at construction sites, it is necessary for the work team to repeatedly test the characteristics of the materials to determine the most appropriate method.
The rise in technical wages in the construction industry has been a very prominent topic in recent years, but this study found that the use of natural materials can reduce material costs, and even if wages increase, the overall cost is still slightly lower than the construction cost of using RC. On the contrary, investing in human resources is a way to strengthen the resilience of the construction industry. Lower construction costs and higher construction efficiency also challenge the assumption that using a lot of labor is inefficient. This study claims that the circular economy must include the circulation of human resources. The circulation of technology inheritance is also a part of the circular economy, and the evolution of construction methods requires the support of technological circulation.

4.3. Structural Resilience and Breathing Walls

There is a proverb in Taiwan: “There are hundreds of years of earth but no century-old bricks”. This means that a mud house built on the ground can survive for a hundred years but a brick house cannot. This reflects the fragility of the bonding method used in masonry materials in earthquake zones.
RC buildings are prone to cracks under the influence of earthquakes and typhoons. Crack formation is a major flaw of concrete structures and will cause problems such as structural damage or water leakage. Once cracks appear, the concrete will allow water to penetrate and accelerate the corrosion of steel. In this corrosive environment, the durability of reinforced concrete building structures will be irreversibly affected [108]. Moreover, cracks can also cause water leakage problems inside buildings. Therefore, most of the research on buildings in Taiwan focuses on water leakage [109] and efflorescence problems in exterior walls [109,110,111,112,113,114].
In the first phase of three of the cases in this study, their design included a shell structure that fully conformed to the material. Due to the strong adhesion between the bamboo and pozzolana, the three cases did not produce any structural cracks or leaks. The treehouse case experienced the Meinong earthquake (Richter magnitude of 6.6, about 27.1 km north-east of the study area) in 2016 and was unscathed.
Data show that after the 921 earthquake and the promotion of green buildings in Taiwan, developers of most buildings are more inclined to choose steel structures with earthquake resistance [115,116]. The most common methods for steel structure exterior walls are glass curtain walls, aluminum panels, PC curtain walls, and RC combinations. However, the disadvantage is that the ventilation and heat dissipation problem can only be solved through the air conditioning system, which not only consumes energy but also increases greenhouse gas emissions. This structural form is very unsuitable in subtropical areas, and buildings in subtropical areas must be naturally ventilated to ensure the occupants’ health and comfort [117].
For Su’s house, the design of the steel structure and woven bamboo and pozzolana walls is not only lightweight and strong, but the building also has the characteristics of structural toughness and breathing exterior walls, which can respond to problems in earthquake zones and tropical climates. The exterior walls can maintain the life and breathing function through the coating of the lime and waterproof layers. The exterior walls can be refurbished after the end of their life, and the steel structure can continue to be used into the next century.

5. Conclusions

The conclusions of this study are as follows: First, the life cycle of the four buildings is from cradle to cradle, and their materials can be decomposed in site, achieving the goal of near-zero waste. Secondly, adhering to the concept of resource reduction, the selection of building materials is more diversified and has a price advantage over RC structures. Third, combining traditional local construction methods with the circular economy theory can lead to the development of technological change that transcends regulations. Fourth, design that responds to geographical conditions is also disaster-resistant design, and the actual data from this study provide a case for earthquake-resistant and climate-adjusting exterior wall technology in Taiwan. Fifth, the area where this research was conducted is a mining area, which is the main source of aggregate materials for Taiwan’s construction industry. This research proposes that the exterior wall method can replace the materials required for RC. The results of this research can become an alternative building form to actively address net-zero emissions and resilience goals.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.-C.T. and Y.-T.C.; data curation, Y.-T.C.; funding acquisition, X.-F.Z.; investigation, S.-C.T. and Y.-T.C.; methodology, S.-C.T. and Y.-T.C.; project administration, S.-C.T.; resources, S.-C.T.; software, S.-C.T.; supervision, S.-C.T. and Y.-T.C.; validation, S.-C.T. and Y.-T.C.; visualization, S.-C.T.; writing—original draft, S.-C.T.; writing—review and editing, S.-C.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Xiamen Academician Workstation (Artistic Digital Research on the Maritime Silk Road Civilization), grant number YSZ202301.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was approved by the Science and Technology Ethics Committee at Jimei University (JMU202307039). (1 August 2022). No harm was caused to the participants during the study.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors of this study sincerely thank all volunteers who participated in the construction of natural buildings, including: Tian, Yi-Shan; Tian, Tian; Fiona Ye; Chang, Sheng-San, Chang Li; teachers and students of Linyun Elementary School in 2017; Su’s family; MingChuan Ecological Leisure Farm.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

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Buildings 14 01584 g001
Figure 1. Study area.
Figure 1. Study area.
Buildings 14 01584 g001
Buildings 14 01584 g002
Figure 2. Bamboo woven wall detail. (a) Bamboo strips locked into the C-shaped steel frame with bolts. (b) Bamboo wall weaving. (c) Bamboo strips. (d) Bamboo wall weaving completed.
Figure 2. Bamboo woven wall detail. (a) Bamboo strips locked into the C-shaped steel frame with bolts. (b) Bamboo wall weaving. (c) Bamboo strips. (d) Bamboo wall weaving completed.
Buildings 14 01584 g002
Buildings 14 01584 g003
Figure 3. Slurry mixing tools. (a) Mixers and mixing barrels. (b) Mixing the lime slurry. (c) Adding color masterbatch to mix exterior wall slurry.
Figure 3. Slurry mixing tools. (a) Mixers and mixing barrels. (b) Mixing the lime slurry. (c) Adding color masterbatch to mix exterior wall slurry.
Buildings 14 01584 g003
Buildings 14 01584 g004
Figure 4. Details of exterior wall section of Su’s house (Unit = cm).
Figure 4. Details of exterior wall section of Su’s house (Unit = cm).
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Buildings 14 01584 g005
Figure 5. Children’s participation.
Figure 5. Children’s participation.
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Buildings 14 01584 g006
Figure 6. The circulation of nearly zero-waste architecture.
Figure 6. The circulation of nearly zero-waste architecture.
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Table 1. Pozzolana material list.
Table 1. Pozzolana material list.
ItemFunctionMaterial
PozzolanaBonding materialOyster powder (CaO), adhesive, lime (Ca(OH)2); 15 kg/package
Cementitious material Polymer-resin-modified cement (PRMC); 25 kg/package
Fine granular materialFine sand
Fibrous matterHemp plant fiber, coconut fiber, dry straw, rice husk
For dyeingColor powder (iron oxide powder)
Waterproof materialWaterproof powder
Table 2. Construction process of four cases.
Table 2. Construction process of four cases.
CaseTreehousePineapple LandmarkCompost ToiletSu’s House
Process
First stage: bamboo workBuildings 14 01584 i001Buildings 14 01584 i002Buildings 14 01584 i003Buildings 14 01584 i004
Second stage: mud workBuildings 14 01584 i005Buildings 14 01584 i006Buildings 14 01584 i007Buildings 14 01584 i008
Third stage: waterproof coating workBuildings 14 01584 i009Buildings 14 01584 i010Buildings 14 01584 i011Buildings 14 01584 i012
Fourth stage: decoration planBuildings 14 01584 i013Buildings 14 01584 i014Buildings 14 01584 i015Buildings 14 01584 i016
Table 3. Basic descriptions of four study cases.
Table 3. Basic descriptions of four study cases.
CaseConstruction ProcessScale and Conditions
Treehouse of Linyun Elementary School (2016), located in Pingtung City,
Pingtung County
  • The foundation was pre-embedded with foundation bolts, 4 wooden structure (mahogany) columns, a yellow cypress platform, and bamboo strips fixed on the wooden boards, crisscrossed and woven into a circle.
  • Pozzolana was applied internally and externally, with a total thickness of about 2.5 cm.
  • The outer layer was coated with a waterproof and nonwoven coating.
  • Another layer of bamboo strips was woven, and pozzolana was applied to the outer layer, with a thickness of about 2.5 cm.
The sphere of the treehouse is 2 m high from the ground, the indoor diameter is 3 m, and the height is 2.45 m.
Conditions: the bark of the tree grew into the treehouse.
Pineapple Landmark (2018), located in Neipu Township,
Pingtung County
  • Bamboo strips were used to make an oval shape and the top of the pineapple.
  • Pozzolana was applied internally and externally, with a total thickness of about 4 cm.
  • The outer layer was coated with a waterproof coating.
  • Pozzolana was applied to the outer layer, with a thickness of about 1 cm.
  • The pozzolana was mixed with a color masterbatch to make the outer layer of the pineapple.
Oval pineapple height: 2 m; diameter: 1.45 m; pineapple crown: 0.9 m; total height: 2.9 m.
Conditions: completed, in use.
Happy Bird’s Compost Toilet (2019–2020), located in Jiouru Township,
Pingtung County
  • Bamboo strips were used instead of steel, with a concrete and brick base. Steel was embedded into the wall, and 60 cm of overlapping bamboo strips were exposed.
  • Bamboo strips were interwoven vertically and horizontally, and thin iron wires were fixed crosswise.
  • Clay, fine sand, straw, and rice husk were mixed and applied to the bamboo wall, with a total thickness of about 5 cm.
  • Lime and fine sand were mixed to coat the exterior and interior walls.
Building height: 2.8 m; diameter: 1.5 m; total width: 3 m.
Conditions: partial roof collapse.
AiLiao Su’s house (2020–2021), located in Neipu Township,
Pingtung County
  • After the steel structure of the building was completed, the outer walls were woven with bamboo strips (two-way, fixed with iron wires).
  • After the bamboo-strip exterior wall was completed, the inner and outer layers of the pozzolana were painted with a total thickness of about 5 cm. There were 2 layers in total.
  • The outer layer was coated with a waterproof coating.
  • Lime and sand were mixed with a color masterbatch to paint the exterior wall.
The building height is 6.5 m, with a total exterior wall area of 307 m2 made out of bamboo and pozzolana.
Conditions: completed, legal building with license for use.
Table 4. Pozzolana material list in four cases.
Table 4. Pozzolana material list in four cases.
CaseMaterialWeightPercentage/MixNotes
TreehouseHemp plant fiber200 g0.84%Total thickness of wall = 5 cm
Rice husk3.5 kg14.76%
PRMC5 kg21.09%
Lime15 kg63.29%
Pineapple LandmarkHemp plant fiber15 g0.06%Total thickness of wall = 5 cm
Rice husk3.5 kg14.88%
PRMC5 kg21.26%
Lime15 kg63.78%
Compost ToiletCoconut fiber300 g0.94%Total thickness of wall = 5 cm
Dry straw3 kg9.43%
Rice husk3.5 kg11.00%
Clay10 kg31.44%
Oyster powder10 kg31.44%
PRMC5 kg15.72%
Lime10 kg30.03%Protective coating layer, thickness = 2 cm
PRMC8 kg24.02%
Oyster powder15 kg45.04%
Coconut fiber300 g0.90%
Su’s HouseCoconut fiber300 g1.23%Total thickness of wall = 5 cm × 2 layers
Rice husk2 kg0.82%
Waterproof powder0.5 kg2.05%
PRMC8.3 kg34.15%
Lime15 kg61.72%
Lime
Polymer-resin-modified cement
Waterproof powder		15 kg60.97%Protective coating layer, thickness = 1 cm
8.3 kg33.73%
1 kg4.06%
300 g1.21%
Table 5. Unit price comparison of two kinds of exterior walls.
Table 5. Unit price comparison of two kinds of exterior walls.
ItemPozzolana Exterior Wall (Thickness = 5 cm)USD/m2Reinforced Concrete Exterior Wall (Thickness = 5 cm)
Structural layerBamboo strip (Single layer two-way) 6.0044.65Reinforcement #3: 15 cm (including iron wire and wages)
Stainless steel self-tapping screws0.330.00Iron wire
Lime2.407.80Concrete (210 kg/cm2, including wages)
Oyster powder3.471.87Cement mortar surface layer (1 cm, inner and outer layers)
Adhesive5.0013.33Template assembly (including wages)
Waterproof powder1.670.00
Coconut fiber2.330.00
Sand0.170.00
Rice husk0.330.00
Fireproof layerFireproof rock wool5.800.00
Waterproof layerElastic cement waterproof layer (5 layers)6.006.00Elastic cement waterproof layer (5 layers, including wages)
Lime layer (including oyster powder and coconut fiber)14.8325.00Exterior wall paint (including wages)
Waterproof powder1.67
WagesPozzolana and wave bamboo45.330.00
Total price 95.3398.65
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Tsai, S.-C.; Zhang, X.-F.; Chang, Y.-T. Toward Nearly Zero-Waste Architecture: Innovation, Application, and Practice of Construction Methods Using Natural Materials. Buildings 2024, 14, 1584. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14061584

AMA Style

Tsai S-C, Zhang X-F, Chang Y-T. Toward Nearly Zero-Waste Architecture: Innovation, Application, and Practice of Construction Methods Using Natural Materials. Buildings. 2024; 14(6):1584. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14061584

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Tsai, Shu-Chen, Xue-Fang Zhang, and Yao-Tan Chang. 2024. "Toward Nearly Zero-Waste Architecture: Innovation, Application, and Practice of Construction Methods Using Natural Materials" Buildings 14, no. 6: 1584. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14061584

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