Analysis of the Urban Form of Bechar through the Attributes of Space Syntax “for a More Sustainable City”

Abstract

Located in the vast Algerian Sahara, Bechar has experienced over the years uncontrolled urban growth. It has evolved from a simple oasis and ksar (traditional settlement) to a city with a contrasting center and segregated outskirts. This growth has led to significant urban fragmentation that affected residents’ quality of life. This research uses space syntax theory to analyze Bechar’s urban configurations and their impact on functionality and sustainability. The study examines integration, connectivity, control, and intelligibility through axial maps and syntactic measures. Findings reveal that areas with high integration show better accessibility and reduced vehicle reliance, while segregated areas face accessibility challenges and limited services. Global integration values range from −1 to 1.192, averaging at 0.767, which indicates different accessibility among neighborhoods. These insights are crucial to identify areas where sustainable urban planning can mitigate adverse effects and enhance city efficiency. We created an axial map using DepthmapX v0.8.0 software and a modified digital QGIS map to collect data and measure Bechar’s urban properties. The methodology we used translates social behaviors into spatial representations, generating interpretative models for social and spatial phenomena. This article provides valuable information on the infrastructure and service needs, guiding strategic resource allocation. The proposed urban design strategies include urban canopies and optimized building ratios to reduce energy consumption and promote sustainability. To conclude, we recommend practical solutions to enhance the sustainability and functioning of urban areas similar to Bechar.

1. Introduction

Urban sustainability has become a concerning subject due to the negative impact of the global increasing urbanization [1]. This increase requires sustainable urban planning to mitigate adverse environmental effects and promote social equity and economic prosperity [2]. For instance, sustainable urban spaces promote green spaces, help reduce carbon footprints, and help improve the quality of life.

Despite efforts showcasing the effectiveness of sustainable urban planning in promoting economic growth while reducing congestion and pollution, a significant gap remains in understanding the impact of sustainable characteristics of urban spaces on urban quality of life and environmental sustainability. The Saharan context, where oases were once synonymous with resilience, is an example of this case [3]. This study explores the relationship between space syntax variables and sustainability parameters integrating into the Saharan urban space, an area largely unexplored in architecture and urban planning [3]. We address the following research questions to examine Bechar city:

How does the urban structure impact the sustainability and functionality of Bechar?

In what way does the current urban form influence socioeconomic and environmental dynamics in Bechar?

How do spatial configurations within Bechar enhance or hinder urban integration and interaction?

Given its challenging living conditions, Bechar faces issues of urban coherence and effective management of public spaces. These spaces are essential for fostering a livable and sustainable urban environment. The contemporary urban fabric of Bechar, heavily influenced by unsustainable construction driven by residential demands [4], has led to spontaneous and unstructured development patterns. This deviation from the city’s historical growth trajectory, exacerbated by land appropriation (notably agricultural) after independence, has resulted in a diverse and antagonistic architectural landscape [5]. Consequently, uncontrolled expansion has led to fragmented and dysfunctional urban extensions, disrupting harmonious integration with the existing urban structure. This result highlights the importance of integrating urban sustainability indicators with the analysis of landscape patterns [6].

Urban fragmentation risks lead to new urban fragments and a drop in the average parcel size. This fragmentation indicates discontinuous growth and a trend toward compaction in the urban fabric [7]. Therefore, an in-depth analysis of urban spatial structures using measurable spatial attributes (such as space syntax) is crucial to promote sustainable urban development. This approach helps identify and prevent sustainability challenges caused by various land allocations, thus minimizing their effects on the city’s functionality.

The research on Bechar’s urban sustainability has the potential to make a substantial impact on multiple fronts. By applying spatial syntax analysis to evaluate the city’s spatial configurations, this study offers critical insights that can significantly enhance urban planning strategies aimed at improving functionality and sustainability. The research provides actionable recommendations for urban planners to optimize spatial layouts in Bechar, offering a clear understanding of the city’s spatial dynamics. This supports the creation of policies that promote sustainable urban development and efficient resource allocation.

1.1. Presentation of the Research Area

Bechar is situated strategically in the western region of the Algerian Sahara. Once known as the historical department of Saoura, this city is positioned approximately 950 km southwest of Algiers (the capital of Algeria) (Figure 1). Bechar expands at a substantial area of 5050 km², making it an urban entity in terms of geographical size (Figure 2), with approximately 279,851 inhabitants.

1.2. The Evolution of Urban Space in Bechar over Time

The evolution of urban space in Bechar has resulted in a unique urban landscape resembling a patchwork of distinct fabric fragments. This mosaic-like urban form, shaped through successive contributions over time, has not been obliterated but integrated with the pre-existing urban space, allowing historical forms to persist [8]. Bechar’s urbanization reflects the influences of various civilizations across its extensive history. The ancient Ksour ruins and the Old Ksar advocate its long-lasting habitation. Characterized by oasis habitats and agriculture, Bechar was historically a hub of Saharan civilization for its surrounding nomadic cultures and the bustling caravan trade [9].

Following the creation of the Trans-Saharan route and the CITROEN expedition, the city’s development took a new trajectory. This change marked a significant shift by effectively replacing the traditional caravan routes and initiating several urban transformations. Bechar experienced substantial restructuring and densification in this phase, especially in the colonial village. This period of transformation led to what can be called a second duplication, which confined the barracks and facilitated the city’s expansion towards the east [8].

Before 1903

Historically, Bechar was already a significant crossroads of civilizations. The remnants of ancient Ksour and the Old Ksar testify to its rich past. The city was known for its Saharan civilization (evident in its traditional dwellings, oasis agriculture, and nomadism in its outskirts) and caravan trade [8].

French Colonial Intervention, 1903–1917

The arrival of the French in 1903 marked a transformative period for Bechar as it began evolving into a colonial military post. The establishment of the French Foreign Legion greatly influenced its development [8]. The construction of the Trans-Sahara Railway, linking Bechar with Oran and other cities, was instrumental in its economic expansion. During this period, new infrastructures were established, including administrative buildings and military installations. The colonial administration’s imposition of a grid-like urban pattern (reflective of European preferences for order and control) introduced segregation between European, military, administrative zones, and traditional living areas.

The Period 1917–1940

The city’s growing role is exploiting coal mines and constructing the Trans-Saharan railway. The most significant urban expansion occurred between the two world wars, during which Bechar became a military base and a communication hub towards the Saharan South [8]. Large companies (such as the Trans-Saharan) exploited the riches of the Saoura and Touat regions and built the road that extended to Gao in Niger. A significant part of the road would later be used for National Road n°06.

The economic and administrative role of Bechar had a clear impact on the organization of the territory in general and on the urban development of the city in particular. However, the city’s growth coincided with the natural and social environment. A significant event later disrupted this harmony and, consequently, the city’s urban structure when the French administration encouraged locals to acquire individual property titles for tribal and communal lands and assets to facilitate their sale to French settlers [9].

The Period 1940–1958

Bechar underwent significant development during this period, affirming its position as a central military and administrative hub. A vast residential area emerged west of the town, near the crest of the ‘la Barga’ mountain (Figure 3). This expansion stemmed primarily from the influx of residents from the Ksour in the Saoura and the settlement of nomads. This period marked a transformative phase in Bechar’s urban evolution, establishing the groundwork for its present urban structure and social dynamics [9].

After Independence

Following Algeria’s independence, Bechar embarked on a period of rapid development. The city capitalized on government investments, shifting towards industrialization with a focus on mining and energy sectors [11]. This economic upswing attracted a diverse population seeking employment opportunities, leading to unplanned urban sprawl (Figure 3). As a result, residential areas and informal settlements emerged, mirroring the socioeconomic stratifications of the growing population.

Since 1988

The urban development in Bechar progressed at an accelerated rate. However, this development often lacked a cohesive planning strategy, further exacerbating urban segregation (Figure 3). The city’s expansion was sporadic, responding more to immediate demands than long-term urban planning objectives [8]. This period witnessed accelerated development in the part that extends from Bechar Djedid to Ouakda through the construction of residences, taking on a linear configuration in its primary form. This period of development was accompanied by an irrational consumption of space, making the management of the city very complex. Consequently, Bechar’s cityscape evolved into a mosaic of varied urban styles and developmental stages (Figure 4). The absence of an integrated urban policy has led to noticeable disparities, with affluent areas sharply contrasted against underdeveloped neighborhoods, highlighting the socioeconomic divisions within the city.

Bechar has evolved into a mosaic-like urban landscape, blending historical elements with modern developments. Key transformations began with French colonialism, establishing Bechar as a military post and introducing the Trans-Saharan Railway. This spurred infrastructural growth and a European-style grid urban pattern. The city mainly expanded due to coal mining and railway construction, making it a military and communication hub. Bechar’s role grew progressively, leading to significant urban expansion. After gaining independence, rapid industrialization and urban sprawl reflected socioeconomic stratifications. Recent uncoordinated development has led to urban segregation and management challenges, creating noticeable disparities between affluent and underdeveloped areas. As a result, Bechar’s urban evolution is a dynamic blend of historical integration and modern expansion amid socioeconomic divisions.

1.3. Literature Review

The urban evolution of Bechar has reached a critical stage, focusing on spatial and functional growth driven by the concentration of 99% of the population in the central area. The city’s current urban structure, influenced by its historical formation, consists of five main entities: the city center, Debdaba, Ouakda, Bechar Djedid, and a new zone. Except for the city center, these areas lack complete autonomy. A new urban area is emerging along CW03 (provincial road) towards Lahmar, outside the old master plan perimeter. The urban fabric is imbalanced in terms of population distribution and activity allocation.

Urban planners have always prioritized rational space use, yet Bechar’s residential density is very low (less than 15 dwellings/ha), indicating significant spatial disparity. The master plan revision emphasizes densifying spaces to maximize urban surface use while maintaining an integrated, dense, and well-equipped environment. The linear expansion affects infrastructure costs adversely, extending them disproportionately to the population and causing space shortages by limiting constructible areas to a narrow strip. It is thus crucial to halt the linear expansion and avoid densifying Ouakda to preserve its agricultural role. Instead of meeting the 2013 master plan for urban extension, the city’s expansion followed an unplanned path, reflecting chaotic land choices that disregard urban and land plans. Despite numerous urban plans from 1966 to 2007, Bechar still faces the same issues highlighted in past studies. The city’s development remains uncoordinated and fragmented, as observed in historical urban planning documents.

1.3.1. Sustainable Urban Development: Global Insights and Applications

The literature review helps us define our problem, strengthen existing research knowledge, and explore how different urban areas have addressed sustainability challenges (focusing primarily on Saharan regions). It also identifies research methods used to approach Bechar’s unique challenges.

Bechar experienced significant development since 1948, marked by the construction of the Trans-Saharan railway and coal mining [8]. This led to rapid urban expansion that overshadowed previous development patterns. Post-independence land appropriation further influenced the formation and transformation of various neighborhoods, shaping the city’s heterogeneous urban fabric [5]. Over a century, spatial production in Bechar resulted in a patchwork of distinct urban fabric fragments [8]. This unique urban fabric results from the demographic explosion, causing structural and functional transformations in the city’s urban composition [12].

Despite the critical need to understand the dynamics of urban expansion in Bechar, most studies focus on the built environment and urban planning [5], sustainability [13,14,15], and other aspects of urban planning [5]. The impact of spatial structure on Bechar’s urban form and planning strategies remains unexplored and requires further investigation to fully grasp the complexities of Bechar’s urban evolution.

Methodologies and solutions that adapt to Bechar’s unique challenges, such as uncontrolled urban growth, fragmentation, and socioeconomic disparities, will rely on lessons from global case studies on sustainable development in arid regions and developing countries. The collective research from Talpur MAH, Khahro SH, and Chandio IA offers significant insights into urban sustainability in developing countries. These studies emphasize the importance of integrated urban planning that incorporates socioeconomic, environmental, and spatial dimensions to mitigate the adverse impacts of rapid urbanization. Additionally, the research underscores the socioeconomic benefits of sustainable planning, which improves residents’ quality of life through better access to amenities and economic development. Studies include the socioeconomic impacts of urbanization [16,17,18], green infrastructure in urban planning [19,20], and sustainable green buildings in Hyderabad [21]. Furthermore, the integration of sustainable practices in urban planning is supported by case studies on energy-efficient practices [22,23] and the role of public transportation in enhancing urban livability [18,24]. By providing actionable policy recommendations, these works advocate for comprehensive planning approaches that balance economic, social, and environmental objectives to achieve sustainable urban growth.

By 2050 (Figure 5), approximately 68% of the global population will live in urban areas [25], which are responsible for about 70% of global carbon dioxide emissions and consume between 60% and 80% of the world’s energy [26]. An exemplary model of sustainable urban development in an arid region is Masdar City in Abu Dhabi, which employs innovative technologies and design principles to create a zero-carbon, zero-waste city. Passive cooling techniques, solar energy, and sustainable building materials are used to mitigate the harsh desert climate [27]. Masdar City also addresses the urban heat island effect by strategically placing vegetation and shaded walkways, reducing ambient temperatures and enhancing pedestrian comfort. Ouarzazate, Morocco, is home to one of the world’s largest solar power plants. The Noor Solar Power Station uses concentrated solar power technology to generate clean energy, significantly reducing the region’s carbon footprint and providing a sustainable energy source [28]. Copenhagen, Denmark, has invested substantially in cycling infrastructure (Figure 6), making it a leading example of sustainable urban mobility. They successfully reduced traffic congestion and pollution by prioritizing bike lanes (approximately 41% of trips are made by bicycle) and pedestrian pathways [29].

In New York, the High Line Park is a notable example of adaptive reuse and urban green space development [30]. An abandoned elevated railway was transformed into a public park, attracting millions of visitors annually and spurring over $2 billion in real estate development nearby. Bogotá, Colombia’s TransMilenio bus rapid transit (BRT) system, demonstrates how efficient public transport can address urban congestion and reduce carbon emissions. The city integrates transport planning with urban development, improving accessibility and reducing traffic issues [31]. Singapore’s garden city vision successfully integrates nature into urban planning. Initiatives like the Park Connector Network and vertical greening of buildings aim to maximize green space and enhance biodiversity in a densely urbanized environment [32].

The methodologies used in these case studies include space syntax, urban canopy, green roofs, and integrated public transport systems. Space syntax helps understand spatial configurations and their impact on social, economic, and environmental outcomes, optimizing urban layouts for better functionality and sustainability. Techniques like urban canopies and green roofs are critical in reducing urban heat islands and improving energy efficiency. Examples from Bogotá and Copenhagen demonstrate the benefits of integrating public transport with urban planning, significantly improving mobility, reducing emissions, and enhancing urban livability.

Urban heat islands are a significant issue in many arid regions, where high temperatures can severely impact urban livability. For instance, urban heat islands have been mitigated in Phoenix, Arizona, USA, through reflective roofing materials, increased vegetation, and green spaces [33]. These measures have helped lower surface temperatures and improve overall urban comfort. Accessibility issues are prevalent in many rapidly urbanizing areas. In Mexico City, accessibility challenges have been addressed by developing an extensive metro and bus system, improving mobility for millions of residents, and reducing reliance on private vehicles [33]. These solutions have significantly reduced traffic congestion and improved air quality in one of the world’s largest cities. Urban fragmentation and segregation are critical challenges impacting cities’ social and economic fabric. Johannesburg, South Africa, exemplifies how historical segregation policies resulted in a fragmented urban landscape. Efforts to reintegrate these areas include developing mixed-use zones and improving public transportation links to enhance connectivity and reduce socioeconomic disparities [34].

Reducing high temperatures is a significant focus of urban sustainability efforts in arid regions. Urban planners have incorporated extensive green spaces and water features in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, to cool the urban environment. Traditional architecture with features like wind towers and shaded courtyards also helps naturally reduce temperatures and improve comfort [35].

A historical overview of urban development helps contextualize current challenges and solutions. For instance, Talpur MAH, Khahro SH, and Chandio IA emphasize integrated urban planning in developing countries. They highlight green infrastructure and sustainable practices to enhance energy efficiency, reduce urban heat islands, and improve quality of life through balanced socioeconomic and environmental objectives. The transformation of New York’s High Line from an industrial relic to a green urban space reflects broader trends in urban renewal and adaptive reuse. The study emphasizes need-based solutions tailored to the specific challenges of congested urban centers. In Bogotá, for example, the BRT system addresses severe traffic congestion and air pollution. In Singapore, vertical greening responds to limited horizontal green space. In Saharan regions, traditional architecture and water management systems, such as qanats and foggara, address water scarcity and extreme temperatures.

The study uses global case studies, including those from arid regions, to guide sustainable urban development strategies in Bechar. It adapts methodologies and solutions to address Bechar’s unique challenges, such as uncontrolled growth, fragmentation, and socioeconomic disparities. This need-based approach tackles urgent urban issues in Bechar. A comprehensive review of global and regional case studies provides a robust framework for targeted solutions, enhancing urban sustainability and functionality. By incorporating these elements, the literature review offers a solid foundation, demonstrating relevance and applicability to urban centers worldwide (including Bechar) and ensuring practical solutions informed by successful global examples.

1.3.2. Expanding Urban Sustainability: From Core Pillars to Spatial Integration

The urban sustainability topic is diverse and multifaceted, with various works exploring its definitions, implications, and foundational concepts. For instance, Mondal [36] emphasizes the need to understand urban sustainability through the Brundtland report’s tripartite model, which includes environmental, economic, and social pillars. Mazzoncini, Somaschini, and Longo [37] expand this model by adding cultural aspects as a fourth pillar. The Brundtland report’s definition of sustainable development, focusing on meeting present needs without compromising future generations’ abilities, is widely acknowledged. This definition underscores the integrated approach necessary for achieving sustainable urban development, embracing economic growth, environmental safeguards, and social justice [38]. The inclusion of social sustainability through Universal Design highlights urban planners’ role in fostering social interaction, community cohesion, and cultural dialogue, emphasizing the social dimension’s critical importance in sustainability [38].

Despite a common understanding of the three core pillars of sustainability, ongoing debates and efforts address their practical implications and adaptability. José G. Vargas-Hernández [39] explores the educational aspects, creating courses for civil engineering students on sustainable design and evaluation methods, enhancing future professionals’ understanding of sustainability principles. Framing urban sustainability as a normative choice highlights the critical challenges linked to urban environments, such as traffic congestion, social tensions, and environmental impacts [40,41]. Research spans various areas, from ecological protection and infrastructure development to urban metabolism, reflecting the multifaceted nature of urban sustainability.

Zhang and Li [42] enhance our understanding by categorizing existing studies on urban sustainability into five distinct clusters (

Table 1. Key clusters of research on urban sustainability and their focus areas.

Cluster	Focus Area	Key Aspects
Ecological systems	Relationship between urban areas and environmental systems	Maintaining environmental balance, utilizing ecological resources sustainably, the impact of urban development on the ecology
Climate change	Adaptation to and mitigation of climate change effects in urban areas	Developing resilient infrastructure, managing risks of rising sea levels, increased natural disasters
Infrastructure systems	Sustainability of urban infrastructure systems	Sustainable design and maintenance of transportation networks, green buildings, and energy systems
Emergency operations	Preparedness and response to urban emergencies	Robust emergency response systems and resilient infrastructure to handle natural disasters and terrorist attacks
Urban recovery	Strategies for recovery of cities after disruptive events	Social, economic, and infrastructural recovery processes, building back better and more resilient urban environments

). This classification highlights the complexity of the issue and helps navigate the extensive body of research. Organizing studies into clusters provides a structured framework that encapsulates diverse sustainability challenges, allowing researchers and practitioners to focus on specific areas of interest.

Exploring spatial aspects within urban sustainability, such as spatial integration and city form, is a critical yet underexplored area that significantly impacts sustainability outcomes. This research gap signals a shift from traditional and functionally focused approaches to more spatially oriented perspectives. The city’s form is now seen as crucial in addressing sustainability challenges, recognizing that spatial dynamics and urban form play a key role beyond mere functional and environmental considerations [43,44].

Bibri and Krogstie [45], Beatley and Collins [46], and Sev [47] emphasize the critical role of spatial dimensions in urban sustainability, advocating for the integration of spatial considerations into sustainability planning and policy-making. Space syntax analysis was used widely to understand urban spatial configurations and their implications for urban sustainability. Hillier and Iida [48] demonstrated the relationship between street network configuration and pedestrian movement patterns, showing how urban design influences social interaction. Karimi [49] applied space syntax to the analytical design of urban spaces, focusing on how spatial configurations impact social and economic activities. Baran et al. [50] compared walkability in new urbanist and suburban neighborhoods, highlighting the role of spatial configurations in walking behavior. Vaughan and Geddes [48] explored the relationship between urban form and social deprivation in London, while Chiaradia et al. [51] analyzed the economic implications of spatial design on residential property values in London. Hillier [52] and space syntax theory provide a foundational framework for optimizing urban spatial structures to enhance sustainability outcomes.

These studies support our methodology by demonstrating the use of space syntax to assess urban configurations and their impacts on functionality and sustainability.

Further investigations into configurational theories, like the space syntax approach, reveal the potential for understanding spatial relations within neighborhoods. This understanding can inform interventions to address segregation and improve urban design, fostering more sustainable and integrated environments [53]. The application of space syntax theory in the Metropolitan Region of Porto Alegre, Brazil, demonstrates its effectiveness in spatial analysis for large urban areas, offering insights into spatial navigation and urban intelligibility [44].

These studies support our methodology by highlighting the use of space syntax to assess urban configurations and their impacts on functionality and sustainability. This approach suggests considering spatial configurations for more effective resource allocation and policy-making, thus improving urban sustainability.

1.3.3. Urban Fragmentation

Urban fragmentation is a complex challenge in urban studies, involving physical and social segregation leading to isolated and disconnected communities. The United Nations Human Settlements Program [54] highlights how urban development that fails to integrate community spaces often results in socioeconomic disparities exacerbated by physical barriers like highways and walls.

The concept extends beyond physical segregation to social fragmentation, as Mebirouk [55] and Santos [56] explored. They describe urban fragmentation as disrupting the social fabric, leading to segregated communities in isolated enclaves. This segregation is evident among immobile urban populations, resulting in a fragmented urban landscape characterized by ghettos.

The literature on urban fragmentation identifies a typological and morphological heterogeneity within urban landscapes, resulting in disorderly urban sprawl [57]. This heterogeneity is known for the proliferation of boundaries and the privatization of public spaces. The fragmentation creates strong contrasts and accessibility issues within cities [58,59] and weakens political, social, and economic relations across neighborhoods [60].

Vidal [61] explored socio-spatial fragmentation, which examines the interplay between social and spatial dimensions in urban environments. It highlights how morphological differences and socioeconomic transformations contribute to urban disparities. Political or managerial fragmentation addresses urban governance complexities, with public–private partnerships and segmented urban management posing challenges to metropolitan governance and functionality [55,60].

In contrast, Paquot [62] discussed that urban integration emphasizes the importance of fostering solidarity and interdependence among urban segments. Chouadra [63] highlights the adverse effects of fragmented urban policies in Algerian cities, showcasing the need for a more integrated urban development approach.

The literature on urban development, sustainability, and fragmentation comprehensively explores city dynamics, focusing on Bechar’s evolution. Significant developmental milestones, such as the construction of the Trans-Sahara railway and coal mining, spurred urban expansion and shaped Bechar’s heterogeneous urban fabric [5,8]. While urban sustainability discourse has evolved to include broader considerations beyond the traditional pillars, emphasizing the need for spatial integration remains a notable gap in addressing the impact of spatial structures on urban form in Bechar [36,37]. Urban fragmentation, characterized by physical and social segregation, is a critical challenge, and the literature lacks a cohesive approach to addressing its implications on urban cohesion and functionality. This synthesis underscores the need for further research into the spatial dynamics influencing urban development and planning strategies and calls for a more integrated approach to tackling urban fragmentation to foster sustainable and cohesive urban environments.

Despite extensive research on urban sustainability, there is a significant gap in studies focusing on the unique urban context of Bechar, an arid region facing distinct socioeconomic and environmental challenges. Previous urban plans have not effectively addressed critical issues such as spatial fragmentation, infrastructure costs, and socioeconomic disparities. Although there is a critical need to understand the dynamics of urban expansion in Bechar, most studies have concentrated on the built environment, covering aspects such as urban planning [5], sustainability [13,14,15], architecture [64], and further aspects of urban planning [5], but they do not adequately address the spatial configurations complexities specific to Bechar.

This study fills the existing gap by applying spatial syntax analysis to Bechar’s urban landscape, offering novel insights and methodologies for sustainable urban planning in arid regions. The research provides innovative strategies tailored to Bechar’s specific conditions, such as optimizing spatial layouts to improve functionality and reduce socioeconomic disparities. By identifying and addressing unique spatial dynamics, this study contributes to a better understanding of sustainable urban development in Bechar and offers valuable methodologies that can be applied to other arid regions facing similar challenges.

The literature review highlights the critical stage of Bechar’s urban evolution, focusing on the city’s spatial and functional growth, and the significant role of urban planners in addressing the imbalanced population distribution and activity allocation. Despite efforts to rationalize space use, Bechar’s low residential density and unplanned expansion underscore the need for integrated urban planning to enhance sustainability and functionality. Lessons from global case studies, such as Masdar City, Noor Solar Power Station, and sustainable urban strategies from Copenhagen, New York, Bogotá, and Singapore, provide valuable insights for addressing Bechar’s unique challenges. The review emphasizes the importance of understanding spatial dynamics and integrating sustainable methodologies to foster cohesive and sustainable urban environments. Addressing uncontrolled growth, fragmentation, and socioeconomic disparities through targeted solutions will be crucial for Bechar’s sustainable urban development.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Description of the Variable

Evaluating urban sustainability is a complex but essential process for improving urban planning and management [65]. This study employs spatial syntax methodology (Figure 7) to examine the influence of urban spatial configurations on the functionality of Bechar, significantly impacting urban sustainability. The relationship between urban sustainability and spatial syntax lies in analyzing and optimizing spatial configurations to enhance urban functionality and viability.

Spatial syntax provides a methodological framework to understand the impact of urban form on social, economic, and environmental aspects [66]. The urban form plays a vital role in urban sustainability, as the land influences travel patterns, fuel consumption, and air quality [67]. The spatial configuration of cities and metropolitan regions profoundly impacts sustainability, shaping ecological and socioeconomic processes.

The analysis of spatial segregation in Bechar will highlight its significant impact on social vulnerability and the persistence of societal divisions. A comprehensive analytical framework is essential to effectively explore the complex interaction of integration and segregation in this urban landscape. In urban public space studies, axial line analysis has produced significant relationships [68,69]. Spatial syntax theory stands out as a crucial tool, offering unique insights into the nuances of this case study.

The development of this study, which examines the impact of urban spatial configurations on the functionality of the city of Bechar, relies on the city map provided by the urban planning department to perform spatial syntax analysis using DepthmapX software.

2.1.1. Space Syntax

Developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s by Bill Hillier and colleagues at the Bartlett University College London, space syntax theory originated as a morphological approach in response to urban and social changes in major British cities during that period [70]. Evolving over the years, it now focuses on analyzing spatial configurations of architectural and urban spaces. The theory translates social behaviors into spatial representations, employing theories and techniques to generate interpretative models for social and spatial phenomena, such as social segregation, crime, business locations, and urban movement [71]. Its applications have expanded into diverse fields, including urban planning, architecture, transportation, human geography, anthropology, and archaeology [69].

Space syntax views urban space as a complex single entity but distinguishes two levels of duality. First, it recognizes the urban space as having local and global dimensions, linking it to the broader urban context [72,73,74]. Second, it identifies two distinct components: the built and communicative spaces within and between these built areas. Focusing on the continuous space, especially its topological configuration, space syntax analyses the relationships between spaces, considering how each space is influenced by its relation to others. The interplay of these two components, the ‘urban full’ and the ‘urban empty’, results in specific spatial configurations that correlate with different urban operations, including mobility, a key element in syntactic analysis [72,73,74]. The configuration of space is seen as a movement generator, with a multiplier effect on the attraction of economic activities linked to pedestrian flows [70,72,73,75].

2.1.2. Axial Line Analysis

In this research, the city of Bechar is modeled using Space Syntax techniques and DepthmapX v0.8.0 software to create an axial map based on a modified digital QGIS map suitable for export to Depthmap©10. The axial analysis conducted with this software reveals distinct syntactic characteristics of Bechar by measuring its global and local urban properties. This map consisted of the minimum number of continuous axial lines, each representing the longest straight line of sight needed to cover the entire spatial layout [70]. The axial map is designed to represent the urban area based on its street network structure. For numerical evaluations, the axial map is converted into an axial graph where each node corresponds to an axial line, and each edge represents an intersection. This formalization allows the decomposition of the continuous spatial layout into component units, enabling the evaluation of their interrelationships using graph-based methods.

The axial map is a fundamental technique in modeling and analyzing urban forms as spatial configurations, widely recognized in space syntax representations for characterizing urban forms. This topological map simplifies spatial morphology into a system of relationships, connecting people to their social and spatial environments. Based on the axial lines (the longest lines of uninterrupted visibility connecting spaces), the axial map is formed by the minimum number of lines required to cover an urban area’s free space [76,77]. These lines accurately represent the accessible line of sight in each street, mirroring the human perception of the built environment. They are instrumental in modeling and analyzing urban configurations, aiding in predicting movement patterns and activity locations [78]. In the graph, lines represent connections, while intersections represent nodes. This approach allows for a comprehensive understanding of the urban system and the analysis of spatial configurations, with its design initially focused on human movement within space. Computational algorithms efficiently manage the complexity of calculating the axial map, determining values such as connectivity and integration through intricate calculations [77].

Integration

Integration classifies as a global static measure and is key in measuring spatial syntax and assesses any spatial system’s relative depth or shallowness from a specific point [48]. It evaluates the capacity of a space to integrate, making it a crucial space syntax measure and a primary indicator of urban movement [74].

Topological measurements were performed on the graph-based representation of the axial map to understand the spatial environment’s behavioral characteristics. The integration index for each axial segment (portions of axial lines between their intersections) is calculated [48]. Higher integration values for a segment signify a better integration within the spatial network, on average. In other words, it has a shorter topological distance from all segments. In the integration map, blue indicates the lowest integration value, gradually increasing to red for the highest value. We define high-integration areas as integrated, and low-integration areas as segregated [79].

Previous studies have demonstrated that integration and segregation effectively describe the social use of urban environments. Typically, areas with high integration are active economic zones, for instance, main streets with retail shops and large businesses. Conversely, segregated areas are usually underutilized spaces associated with neglect or crime [80]. Empirical findings have shown a significant correlation between local integration and pedestrian flow rates in urban settings [81]. Across various geographic locations and cultures, natural pedestrian movement patterns closely align with the integration index map [82]. On an average scale, pedestrian destinations can be predicted accurately based on the integration index. This evidence supports Hillier et al.‘s theory. Hillier suggests that pedestrian distribution in a street network is mainly influenced by the spatial system’s inherent morphological and geometrical characteristics [83]. Additional studies have backed these findings, highlighting the role of integration in economic vitality and social interaction. For example, research has shown that areas with high integration attract more economic activities and pedestrian traffic, leading to vibrant public spaces [84]. Moreover, the spatial distribution of integration values has been linked to variations in land use and social cohesion, further underscoring the importance of spatial configuration in urban planning [85].

Connectivity

Connectivity is a local static measure that indicates the number of directly connected streets [86]. It serves as a key metric in understanding the comprehensibility of the global network [78]. In detail, connectivity measures the number of immediate neighbors directly connected to a node, providing a local perspective on network interconnections [48,73,87]. Analyzing the relationship between connectivity and overall integration within a spatial system leads to the concept of intelligibility [88]. Its value equals the R² coefficient of determination from the regression between connectivity values and global integration. A subset with a high R² is interpreted as a group of spaces with good intelligibility [89].

Control Value

The control value is a dynamic local measure that quantifies the extent to which space influences access to its neighboring areas. It assesses the number of alternative connections available to each neighboring space, thus evaluating the relative influence of a particular space on accessibility and movement patterns within its immediate vicinity [88].

2.1.3. Second Degree Measures

Intelligibility

As defined by Hillier [88], intelligence is the capacity of a structure to provide a clear local indicator to understand spaces at a global level, allowing the study of different parts of urban areas and their relationship [83]. This intelligence is calculated by analyzing the correlation between Connectivity (a local measure) and Integration (a global measure). A high coefficient value, close to 1, suggests a strong correlation and indicates that the urban system is easily understandable. This concept is also closely linked to cognitive mapping and Lynch’s notion of legibility, focusing on the readability of an urban environment [66,90]. Intelligibility measures the integration of axial lines within the system, reflecting how easily a pedestrian can understand the overall urban layout from a specific location. It indicates how well the local environment helps navigate the entire area. A low intelligibility value suggests a labyrinthine spatial organization, while a high intelligibility value means the area is easy to navigate [83].

Synergy

As described by Dalton [91] and Hillier [75] in ‘Space is the Machine’, synergy is the correlation between local integration (radius 3) and global integration (radius n). This measure assesses how well a space’s local structure relates to the larger-scale system it is part of. A diagram typically visualizes this relationship, with the degree of correlation indicated by the coefficient (R²).

The analysis of spatial segregation in Bechar reveals its significant impact on social vulnerability and societal divisions. Using space syntax theory, we explore urban fragmentation through spatial accessibility indicators, showing that a territory is fragmented when its parts are poorly connected. Space syntax, developed by Bill Hillier, translates social behaviors into spatial representations, aiding in analyzing phenomena like segregation and urban movement. Key measures such as integration, connectivity, control value, intelligibility, and synergy provide insights into the city’s morphological continuity, urban fabric heterogeneity, and the articulation between centralities and peripheries. These measures are crucial for optimizing urban spatial configurations, directly linking to urban sustainability by promoting accessibility, enhancing social interaction, and ensuring cohesive development. Integration and connectivity improve mobility and accessibility, reducing reliance on private vehicles. Intelligibility and synergy facilitate coherent urban planning, making spaces more legible and functional. The control value helps identify areas for interventions to enhance accessibility and equity, contributing to a balanced and sustainable urban development.

3. Results

The axial map shows a color gradient shifting from blue to red, effectively highlighting areas of segregation and integration within the city (as depicted in Figure 8 and Figure 9). Figure 10 illustrates the city’s connectivity, identifying highly and poorly connected areas. Additionally, Figure 11 displays the analyses of control values across Bechar, indicating the extent of spatial influence. These visual and quantitative assessments offer an overall understanding of Bechar’s spatial dynamics, underlining the importance of syntactic measures in urban analysis.

3.1. Axial Map Analysis Results

The results of the axial map analysis (

Table 2. Summary attributes of the axial map.

	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Std. Deviation
Integration HH	−1.00	1.19	0.7674	0.16134
Connectivity	0	67	3.72	3.005
Control	−1	21	1.00	0.921

) for Bechar reveal valuable insights into the spatial dynamics and their impact on sustainability, socioeconomic structures, and urban interaction. The axial map analysis, encompassing 3195 axial lines over a 45.5 km² area, shows intricate patterns of connectivity and integration. The global integration (HH) values, ranging from −1 to 1.192 with an average of 0.767, highlight areas where high integration supports sustainable urban living by promoting accessibility and reducing reliance on private vehicles. Specifically, neighborhoods such as Hay El-Karma, Hay Badr, Hay Inara, and Hay Gharassa, which exhibit high integration values, demonstrate the importance of integrated urban design in enhancing the city’s functionality (Figure 8). Higher foot traffic is due to increased levels of integration. Subsequent research by Ozbil, Peponis, and Stone [90] has confirmed that this correlation remains robust and significant, even when we consider the development densities on the observed streets and their surrounding areas. Similarly, the distribution of land uses, especially commercial land uses, follows this pattern.

The map highlights several marginalized and segregated neighborhoods, primarily located on the city’s outskirts. These include informal settlements such as Hay Boutlis and the Bechar Djedid neighborhood to the south. Hay Teghlyine and the new extensions in the Debdaba neighborhood are other examples in the northeast. The 198 Housing Units neighborhood also exhibits signs of segregation in the north.

Most integrated axes in red correspond to the city’s main thoroughfares. Road n°06 (Saoura Road), linking the city center to southern neighborhoods, notably records the highest integration values. Its extensions, including Boulevard Toumi Tayeb, Boulevard Razni Chikh, Rue Menouni, and Rue Maalem Mohamed, also exhibit substantial integration. These main roads and interconnected streets create vibrant urban public spaces, hosting various social and commercial activities, with Road n°06 serving as a focal point for neighborhood life.

The map identifies several marginalized areas with poor accessibility, resulting in a lack of vibrant social and commercial activities. These areas typically feature predominantly residential land use with limited commercial or recreational facilities, resulting in a lack of diversity. Minimal pedestrian traffic is due to these neighborhoods’ peripheral location and poor connectivity. Additionally, infrastructure in marginalized areas is often inadequate, with limited access to transportation, utilities, and public services. Economic disadvantages are expected, with fewer businesses and services available to residents. The limited number of roads effectively connecting various urban fragments highlights a significant lack of inter-neighborhood connectivity. Suggesting, therefore, that urban planning has not adequately addressed the need for thoroughfares that facilitate better integration across different parts of the city, impacting overall urban functionality and social cohesion.

The local integration analysis within Bechar city reveals significant disparities in road system integration (Figure 9). Road n°06 emerges as the most integrated, marked by its red color on the map. This street is dynamic and heavily trafficked, playing a vital role in the structural organization of the neighborhood. Boulevard Razni Cheikh also displays significant integration values, though marginally less than Road n°06. These well-integrated axes are distinguished by their ease of access, high permeability, and visibility, contributing to their popularity for movement and transportation. They also enhance urban functionality and promote sustainable urban living by easing movement and reducing reliance on private vehicles.

Contrarily, less integrated axes (highlighted in blue) are characterized by reduced accessibility and lower integration levels. This is particularly evident in the peripheral areas of the neighborhood, such as the southwest regions, northeast regions, and around critical areas (i.e., the main neighborhood entrance and interstitial spaces between houses). These areas exhibit minimal integration values that constrain movement and interaction, especially for visitors and newcomers. The lack of integration in these areas contributes to socioeconomic differentiation, vehicle reliance, and environmental degradation, thus underscoring the urban segregation within the city. This analysis aligns with identifying and addressing spatial disparities to enhance urban sustainability and functionality.

In the analysis of Bechar city’s connectivity map (Figure 10), roads connecting neighborhoods (represented in shades from red to light blue) indicate the highest connectivity values.

These roads have a regular and near-orthogonal urban layout, enhancing permeability and fostering the emergence of new urban centers. Areas with spontaneous and irregular housing patterns display strong segregation from the broader urban system, as indicated by the blue-colored streets in these regions.

The map also reveals that the number of roads effectively connecting the various parts of Bechar to the overall system is quite limited. Road n°06 stands out as the most connected axis, followed by Rue Hamlili Brahim and Rue Menouni. These areas are known for their high integration values, central location, proximity to major thoroughfares, and dense street network, allowing vibrant social and commercial activities, diverse land uses, and well-developed infrastructure. Hay El Badr, Debdaba, and the city center are examples of these areas. In contrast, disconnected areas exhibit low-integration values, peripheral location, distance from major roads, and a sparse street network. This lack of connectivity between neighborhoods causes limited social and commercial activities, homogeneous land uses, underdeveloped infrastructure, and economic disadvantages. As a result, we can suggest that urban planning may not have sufficiently addressed the need for thoroughfares that facilitate better integration across different parts of the city.

The control map analysis reveals significant navigational challenges in Bechar’s urban layout. Aside from Road n°06, none of the tertiary or secondary roads exhibit high control values (Figure 11), indicating their relative disconnection and lack of clear navigational routes.

The overall spatial control within the city is inadequate, with few road intersections, alleys, and inter-district passages showing better navigability. Mostly, this is due to their regular and near-orthogonal structure in Hay El Badr, some parts of Debdaba, the city center, and Hay Tnkerod. This disconnection primarily benefits residents familiar with the city’s layout, who can navigate its fragmented routes. For outsiders or newcomers, however, the city’s layout is confusing and difficult to navigate, leading to disorientation and unfamiliarity. The lack of clear routes can also decrease perceptions of safety, particularly in complex and poorly visible areas. These proprieties are showcased in Hay Fajr, Bleu Zone, Hay Inara, and recent urban extensions of Debdaba neighborhood.

3.2. Second Degree Measures Results

Intelligibility measures how well local properties of a spatial configuration reflect its global structure. This is assessed by the correlation between Connectivity (a local measure) and Integration (a global measure). A strong correlation indicates higher intelligibility. This measure is crucial since studies have shown that higher intelligibility correlates with different behaviors [88,92]. To assess the intelligibility of Bechar, a scatter plot of Integration and Connectivity was examined. Figure 12 shows no significant relationship between these two measures in the city. The low intelligibility value (R² = 0.048) means that high local connectivity does not necessarily translate to global integration. This conclusion suggests that Bechar’s urban layout is not easily understandable from its parts, thus making it challenging for residents and visitors to navigate and comprehend the city’s spatial organization.

The scatter plot indicates a moderate alignment between the city’s global and local dynamics (Figure 13). The correlation between local integration (radius 3) and global integration (radius n) assesses the alignment of the dynamics. This level of synergy suggests that some crucial axes and spaces are functioning effectively as convergence points for both local and global movements.

The moderate synergy suggests that individual neighborhoods still disrupt the overall flow of movement throughout the city, though the urban system works well together as a dynamic whole. The findings confirm that Bechar’s mixed urban structure experiences urban segregation and socioeconomic differentiation, impacting sustainability, socioeconomic structures, and urban interaction.

The study identified areas of both segregation and integration, assessed connectivity and navigational challenges, and evaluated the urban layout’s support for social and commercial activities using space syntax measures. The study also highlighted the spatial disparities between well-connected central areas and marginalized peripheries. Synergy assessed connectivity and navigational challenges and evaluated the urban layout’s support for social and commercial activities. It also highlighted spatial disparities between well-connected central areas and marginalized peripheries.

4. Discussion

Like many Algerian cities, the case of Bechar is enlightening in explaining extensive urbanization and challenges in reclaiming the urban form. The axial and syntactic analysis of Bechar reveals its fragmented urban structure, shaped by colonial and post-independence developments. The city extends linearly over 17 km and contrasts starkly with its historical center, the ksar, a disconnected fragment nowadays. The master plan’s proposal for north–south expansion potentially leads to further linear development. New peripheral extensions also show disconnection from the central core, contrasting with the National Agency for Territorial Development’s (ANAT) aim to densify the urban fabric and control urban growth. The well-equipped central district, the hub of administrative, financial, and commercial activities, contrasts other neighborhoods with limited services, leading to urban segregation and unequal access to resources and opportunities [93,94]. The peripheries, characterized by a mix of legal and illegal housing and poorly accessible public facilities, have led to urban sprawl, resulting in a complex and fragmented city. Spatial analysis shows that Bechar’s structure is illegible, with poor orientation and accessibility. Low synergy values indicate a lack of cohesive dynamics between global and local levels, leading to isolated neighborhood spaces, contrasting with a crucial regulatory goal of the master plan: rationalizing urban spaces and reducing network management costs. While the central areas have well-integrated road systems, peripheral areas remain segregated.

The primary integrated roads align with regulatory plans and include major roads connecting southern, northern, and western neighborhoods, structuring and connecting the city center with surrounding areas. Increased fragmentation correlates with decreased intelligibility, especially in the city center. This fragmentation and the irregular connections between the center and periphery contribute to Bechar’s low intelligibility. Controllable spaces, characterized by inaccessibility due to fewer connections, isolate residents and detach these areas from the rest of the city, aligning with segregated zones where broader city interactions are restricted [57,70].

Urban planning regulations, including the master and land use plans, have allowed us to understand and identify the limiting factors of their implementation. The master plan sets fundamental orientations to organize and control land use for sustainable and balanced development. It includes plans defining short-, medium-, and long-term orientations, dividing the territory into specific zones with regulated uses. Key aspects include construction standards, environmental preservation, infrastructure improvement, and urban rehabilitation. Public participation is encouraged to ensure that citizens’ needs are considered. Lastly, the regulations support economic and social development by creating economic activity zones and promoting access to affordable housing and social services. Its logical conclusion is found in the adoption of a land use plan. It is difficult to conceive a land use plan that does not rely on a clear statement from the master plan. Similarly, a land use plan is effective when it allows for implementing the master plan’s options.

This research aimed to clarify assumptions about the impacts of spatial fragmentation on social and economic structures and space syntax measures in Bechar. By addressing related questions, this paper contributes to urban sustainability and space syntax by providing further insights into the actual distribution of urban space. It offers actionable insights for enhancing accessibility, promoting equitable resource distribution, reducing urban sprawl, and fostering social interactions. Additionally, the study reveals that the area’s level of spatial intelligibility influences residential activities at urban scale more than spatial structure (grid-like or organic).

The results of the space syntax analysis in this research highlight the strengths and challenges of the urban space in Bechar. They provide a framework for evaluating design proposals to achieve specific design goals, such as increasing or decreasing certain land uses in an area. In this study, the axial lines method describes the spatial configurations of the case studies. This approach examines the typological distances between lines representing street networks [68]. It is crucial for planning authorities and urban planners to carefully consider the planning and design of road networks, as these are inherently static and hard to alter. This consideration is especially pertinent to new urban developments and is consistent with other research in the field [89,95,96]. Practically, the findings of this study offer an analytical framework for evaluating master plan proposals for new city areas, allowing the exploration and modification of urban space based on the street network.

The findings in this study provide valuable insights to predict the optimal locations for amenities and facilities in new urban developments. By implementing strategic urban design, planning authorities can effectively reduce the demand for public lighting, propose well-structured streets to mitigate the heat island effect, and decrease fuel consumption, thus enhancing urban sustainability. Key design elements, such as accessibility to facilities, sunlight exposure, life cycle analyses, and the impact of communication systems on urban design, are crucial in these strategies [95,97].

In Bechar, it is recommended that planning authorities develop guidelines that advocate for highly intelligible urban designs. These guidelines can serve as indicators to provide feedback on policy implementation regarding urban design and land-use distribution. While the study offers a broad understanding of urban space in Bechar, it also highlights the spatial distribution’s role in promoting or hindering human behaviors and economic activities. The quality of urban space is influenced by various physical and economic factors, such as the integration and accessibility of an area, pedestrian movement, and the availability of public transportation. Achieving sustainable mobility necessitates a flexible paradigm and policy measures to enhance urban sustainability, including the high-quality implementation of innovative schemes and gaining public acceptability through active involvement [96,98].

This research focuses on the urban spatial configurations of Bechar and their impact on the city’s functionality and sustainability. The study, however, has some limitations. First, it relies on the availability of satellite imagery and field surveys. These limit the ability to capture all dimensions of the urban environment, potentially affecting the accuracy of the analysis. Regardless of how powerful the spatial syntax tool is, it may not fully account for all socioeconomic and cultural factors influencing urban development. Hence why, the additional dimensions are used to interpret the results. The findings are specific to Bechar and may not directly apply to other cities with different geographical, cultural, and socioeconomic contexts. Therefore, comparative studies with other regions are needed to generalize the results. The research provides a snapshot of Bechar’s current urban form, not accounting for historical transformations or future changes beyond the data collected. This problem highlights the need for longitudinal studies to understand urban growth dynamics over time. The use of DepthmapX and QGIS 3.30.3 software for spatial analysis has inherent limitations related to software capabilities and user expertise, with potential variations in application leading to differences in analytical outcomes. While examining specific spatial attributes, the study does not extensively explore the role of the Network Accessibility and Connectivity Hierarchy (NACH) or other influencing factors like land prices, population density, and public transport in land-use distribution. Future research should address these factors to build on this study and enhance our understanding of sustainable urban planning in arid regions.

5. Conclusions

The application of spatial syntax to Bechar’s urban fabric reveals significant spatial disparities and connectivity issues linked to the history of colonization and post-independence expansion. It highlights a central urban dichotomy: highly integrated central areas versus segregated peripheral neighborhoods, reflecting spatial and socioeconomic disparities. The fragmented urban structure becomes less intelligible from the center to the peripheries, with centrally organized regular grids sharply contrasting with the irregular and disconnected layouts of peripheral areas. These peripheries, characterized by unplanned sprawl and a mix of legal and illegal housing, lack coherent planning for accessibility and integration. As a result, Bechar is a complex and compartmentalized city where navigation is challenging, particularly for newcomers. These findings support the idea that a city’s urban form influences urban sustainability.

By using spatial syntax attributes, the study quantifies the spatial structure. It evaluates the impact of spatial fragmentation on social and economic structures and processes in the urban space, enabling proactive measures for urban sustainability. Hillier and Hanson [70] noted that the spatial configuration of cities directly impacts social structure and community interactions and functioning.

In principle, Bechar’s urban planning rules aim to coherently structure land use, promote infrastructure, and encourage balanced growth. These guidelines integrate master plans with local specifics. Despite their potential, the regulations have failed to control urbanization, leading to chaos due to uncoordinated expansions. These regulations, dating from the 1990s, are considered outdated and ineffective, lacking an integrated approach and future vision, resulting in traffic congestion and insufficient implementation.

Overall, Bechar’s urban dynamics are marked by spatial fragmentation, environmental deterioration, and infrastructure vulnerability. Urban policy failures are due to technical issues, lack of skills, and the complexity of social and political relations. Effective management requires greater participation, flexible legal tools, and a democratic institutional framework. Sustainable urban development is impossible without inclusive and participatory planning processes [26]. Land-use plans that divide cities into sectors show that limited visions are insufficient for future planning. Poor city organization, unprepared land, adequate facilities, and incompatible activities hinder sustainable socioeconomic and urban development, threatening current and future generations. Urban planning actions lack coherent codes and adequate field monitoring, preventing the achievement of socioeconomic goals.

In response to these findings, there is an urgent need for strategic urban planning to address Bechar’s spatial and social ruptures. Effective solutions include improving connectivity between central and peripheral areas, fostering neighborhood integration, and enhancing the intelligibility of the city’s layout. These measures are crucial for the city’s physical, social, and economic fabric and to improve residents’ quality of life. As Lefebvre [99] emphasized, the right to the city is not merely the right to access what already exists but the right to modify it according to our desires. Investigating urban form and segregation through space syntax spatial attributes can guide energy-efficient urban design strategies. Key strategies include urban canopy application, street orientation, and optimized building ratios. These strategies significantly influence energy use and urban sustainability. Integrating renewable energy potential (considering microclimatic effects on cooling demands) and mitigating air pollution is crucial. Holistic urban planning should focus on the collective impact of buildings, emphasizing courtyards, renewable energy integration, and energy-efficient urban blocks [100,101]. These strategies can help reduce energy requirements for cooling and manage commercial land use impacts, offering a pathway toward achieving urban sustainability goals through thoughtful design and planning. By combining these approaches, Bechar can address its current challenges and move towards a more sustainable and integrated urban future.

Critics argue that the Space Syntax approach (SSA) has several limitations. Ratti [102] from MIT points out that SSA lacks precision, is overly subjective, and fails to represent space accurately. According to Ratti, the approach does not capture cultural norms affecting building usage and oversimplifies spatial analysis by limiting it to two dimensions. Similarly, Osman and Suliman [103] argue that SSA does not adequately consider cultural differences in space utilization. These critiques highlight the need for comprehensive methodologies that incorporate cultural nuances and three-dimensional aspects of urban spaces.

To conclude, developing sustainable cities in the Saharan-arid regions requires a study of sustainability indicators that balance socioeconomic, environmental, and socio-cultural parameters. Following a strategic framework adapted to community needs, it is possible to achieve sustainable development. New urban planning measures and renewed debate are necessary. These require awareness and mobilization from researchers, public authorities, local communities, and all stakeholders to improve future generations’ living conditions. The future of urban sustainability depends on creating inclusive, resilient, and adaptive urban environments [104].