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Article

Exploring Gentrification Architecture Pursuit in Individuals with Childhood Left-behind Experiences—Empirical Analysis Based on the Perspective of Sports Participation

by
Yuyang Hou
1,†,
Sen Chen
1,†,
Zhenning Yao
1,†,
Yujie Zhang
1,†,
Qian Huang
2 and
Tianyi Zhang
3,*
1
Graduate Department, Xi’an Physical Education University, Xi’an 710068, China
2
School of Sports Engineering and Information Technology, Wuhan Sports University, Wuhan 430079, China
3
Faculty of Humanities and Arts, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau 999078, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Buildings 2024, 14(8), 2367; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082367
Submission received: 13 June 2024 / Revised: 19 July 2024 / Accepted: 20 July 2024 / Published: 1 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Trends in Real Estate Economics and Livability)
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Abstract

:
Using a quantitative method, this paper examined the role of physical activity well-being before physical activity participation and gentrification architecture pursuit in 481 respondents (including 377 with childhood left-behind experiences) in Xi’an City, China, and tested the effect of the metacognition level of the group with childhood left-behind experiences on this pathway. The results showed that (1) physical activity participation of the group with childhood left-behind experiences had a significant positive predictive effect on gentrification architecture pursuit; (2) the level of physical activity participation of the group with childhood left-behind experiences could exert an indirect effect on gentrification architecture pursuit through physical activity well-being; (3) metacognition played a negative role in the pathway of physical activity participation predicting gentrification architecture pursuit of the group with childhood left-behind experiences; (4) the level of metacognition played a negative role in the pathway of physical activity participation and gentrification architecture pursuit of the group with childhood left-behind experiences; (5) metacognition also played a negative role in the path of physical activity well-being in predicting gentrification architecture pursuit in groups with childhood left-behind experiences. This paper is important in analyzing the complex effects of childhood left-behind experiences on individual consumption perceptions and develop a deeper understanding.

1. Introduction

Gentrification is a common phenomenon in today’s society, especially in the field of urban renewal and construction [1]. As shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2, Xi’an, China, has seen a significant reduction in cultivated land in nine years due to the expansion of building land as a result of its urbanization; and the distribution and size of buildings in Xi’an has undergone significant changes in the past 10 years, with a tendency to expand from the center to the periphery, where urbanization and economic growth have driven the demand for gentrified buildings and land development, and, more importantly, the government-driven urban renewal and renovation projects for old neighborhoods, as well as the preservation of historical cultural heritage and organic micro-renewal, have all had a significant impact on the cityscape and distribution of buildings. Renovation projects in older neighborhoods, as well as the preservation and organic micro-renewal of historical and cultural heritage, have all had a significant impact on the urban landscape and building distribution.
Gentrification usually refers to the process of transforming older residential areas of a city into middle- and high-income neighborhoods through renovation and upgrading, which is often accompanied by an exodus of low-income residents and an influx of diverse outsiders [2,3]. Gentrification has become an unavoidable phenomenon in many cities around the world, and while it brings strong economic impetus to cities, it also brings social problems that cannot be ignored [4]. For example, gentrification has exacerbated the polarization of the housing market, with an increase in the supply of high-end housing and a growing scarcity of affordable housing, which not only squeezes the living space of low-income people in cities but also puts more pressure on the middle-income group under the rapid upgrading of urban services. The phenomenon of urban gentrification not only diminishes the living space for low-income groups in cities but also exacerbates the pressures faced by middle-income groups due to the rapid upgrading of urban services. One of the notable challenges associated with this trend is the burden of “mortgage repayment”, which particularly affects young and middle-income groups in China. For this reason, some countries and cities have adopted housing policies and other measures to curb the negative effects of gentrification, such as the rent freeze implemented in Berlin, Germany.
Gentrification, on the other hand, refers to the renewal or redevelopment of buildings that occurs as part of the process of urban gentrification, which usually involves the transformation of older, low-cost residential areas into higher-end residential, commercial, and recreational facilities catering to the needs of middle- and upper-income residents. This transformation is often accompanied by cosmetic renovation, modernization of facilities, and the introduction of new architectural styles, with the aim of increasing the economic value and visual appeal of the urban area [5]. There are three reasons for the rapid development of gentrification [6,7,8]: firstly, there are economic motives, such as governments promoting gentrification through increased tax revenue and regional economic activation, and real estate developers seeking large profit margins and investing in downtowns or other potential areas through renovation to quickly build gentrified buildings to “attract attention”; secondly, market demand, such as with urbanization and the increase in the income level of the general public; the middle-class people’s demand for high-quality living space continues to increase, such as people’s lifestyles and “personalized” changes in the residence around the convenient transportation; facilities are the consumer’s choice; thirdly, cultural trends, such as the rise of new art forms and creative industries, are driving the transformation and upgrading of old industrial areas.
It has to be emphasized that there has always been a passion and popularity for the pursuit of commodity symbols in all groups of society, especially in the context of the rapid development of information technology; the concept of symbolic consumption, which takes the pursuit of commodity symbolic meanings as the main purpose of consumption, is also spreading in all groups of society [9]. This symbolic consumption has the nature of the times and will develop and change with the development of the social economy, politics, culture, and other factors. In this context, “status manifestation” has become one of the main forms of symbolic meaning of gentrified architectural properties. For example, Kreuzberg in Berlin, Germany, is known worldwide for its rich cultural diversity and counter-culture. With the recent rise of new-age art and diverse creative entrepreneurial dynamics, the area has attracted a succession of young professionals and middle-class families. The pursuit of gentrification architecture is not only about changing architectural styles and cityscapes but also deeply touches on shifts in social structure, cultural expression, and identity [10].
Reviewing the current research on gentrification architecture pursuit can be divided into five categories; namely, urban planning and property policy response research [11], global comparative research on gentrification architecture [12], research on gentrification architecture and physical and mental health of the general public [13], research on the environment and the sustainable development of urban architecture [14], and research on culture and identity change [15]. In the study of culture and identity change, some studies have explored the gentrification architecture pursuit intention of immigrant groups, high-, middle-, and low-income groups, ordinary people in different stages of life, and people with different educational backgrounds and occupations [16]. However, no study has focused on people who experienced being left behind in their childhood. The uncertainty and loneliness of the left-behind children’s experience may make them more eager for stability and security in adulthood. As a result, this group may be more inclined to seek residential environments that offer long-term security. At the same time, the childhood left-behind experience may stimulate a strong need for social identity and a sense of belonging, and gentrified areas, which are usually associated with social status enhancement, may better satisfy their quest for social identity. Physical activity participation has been shown to be effective in reducing stress, anxiety, and depression, with positive effects on mental health. For consumers with the experience of being left behind, the availability of sports facilities and space for sports activities may be an important factor in their choice of housing, and the unstable family environment of prolonged separation may make this segment of the population have a higher pursuit of the stability and health of the living environment, and gentrification areas usually develop housing projects that include gyms, swimming pools, or other sports facilities. Such amenities may be attractive to consumers with a history of staying behind who want to enhance their well-being through physical activity.
Based on this, this paper, in the process of researching gentrification, effectively focuses its perspective on the group with childhood left-behind experiences. Based on the integration and analysis of previous scholars’ dissertation materials, with identity construction theory as the theoretical guideline, and on the basis of physical activity participation, two emerging variables, namely, physical activity happiness and metacognition, are introduced to explore the impact of childhood left-behind experience on consumers’ pursuit of architecture in adulthood. Through SPSS and PROCESS, we introduced interdisciplinary variables, such as “sports participation” and “left-behind childhood experience”, and for the first time, explored the internal perception and influencing factors of this group in the process of urbanization from a non-dimensional perspective. This study illustrates the unique understanding and pursuit of gentrification architecture by this special group of left-behind sports participants, which promotes the understanding of this group and provides real estate developers and other stakeholders with unique suggestions from the perspective of special consumers, which will help them to design, build, and publicize real estate projects that are more suitable for the general public by more comprehensively taking into account the psychological state of different groups.

2. Literature Review and Hypothesis

2.1. Physical Activity Participation and Gentrification Architecture Pursuit

Physical activity participation refers to the extent to which an individual participates in physical activity and the manner in which he or she participates, which usually involves the individual’s input at the physical, psychological, social, and cultural levels. The study by Beaton et al. defines physical activity participation as a multidimensional construct that represents the centrality of physical activity in the life of an individual as well as the hedonic and symbolic value it provides [17]. The development of physical activity participation is influenced by a variety of factors, including the socio-cultural context, the educational system, increased health awareness, and policy support. As society’s awareness of the importance of physical activity has increased, physical activity participation has evolved from a simple competitive or recreational activity to a comprehensive way of promoting physical and mental health. As a result, scholars have increasingly focused on how physical activity participation affects individuals and groups across multiple dimensions. Among the motivations and influences on physical activity participation, individuals have a variety of motivations for physical activity participation, including health improvement, enjoyment, socialization needs, and athletic enhancement. For example, a study by Craike et al. [18] provided a comparative analysis of female adolescents’ participation in physical activity in urban and rural areas and found that autonomy, sense of competence, and sense of belonging were the key factors influencing physical activity participation. Therefore, physical activity is not only about physical health but also involves multiple influences at the psychological, social, and cultural levels. As awareness of the benefits of physical activity has grown, participation in physical activity has been widely recognized as an important way to enhance one’s quality of life.
Gentrification is a complex process of urban development that involves the transformation of residential, commercial, and public spaces, often accompanied by close cooperation between real estate developers and local governments, resulting in an economic and cultural upswing for the region. Gentrification architecture pursuit refers to a shift in emphasis in architecture and urban planning during gentrification, away from the original focus on functionality and utility to a greater emphasis on aesthetics and design styles that match the preferences of the new inhabitants [19]. This often includes the introduction of new architectural designs as well as urban beautification projects that increase property values. Gentrification of architecture also signals a change in consumer psychology. For example, Arkaraprasertkul [20] has demonstrated in his study the internal gentrification of a traditional community in Shanghai, where local residents and developers protect and emphasize the uniqueness of the architecture to increase the market value and social status of the area.
Gentrification not only changes the physical environment of the city but also reshapes the identity and social belonging of community members. In this process, the increase in sports facilities and the promotion of sports activities have become the key points of community reengineering. From the theory of identity construction, it is clear that sports activities are not only a means of physical health promotion but also a tool for community members’ identity reshaping. In gentrification areas, newly introduced sports facilities (fitness centers, swimming pools, playgrounds, etc.) are often designed to conform to high-end and distinctive architectural styles, which not only satisfies the pursuit of high-quality life under the psychological condition of low security for groups with childhood left-behind experiences but also reflects the trend of an area’s shift from a functional orientation to aesthetics and recreation orientation [21]. In addition, the social effects of sports activities may also have provided support for the gentrification architecture pursuit. For example, Meir [22] argues that sports activities can enhance community cohesion by organizing sports events and activities to strengthen the interaction and connection between residents and create a positive community atmosphere. Such an atmosphere is conducive to attracting more residents seeking a quality living environment, thus indirectly promoting the construction of residential and commercial facilities with higher-end demand and more unique designs. In conclusion, physical activity participation in gentrification is not just a part of improving the physical environment but also an important element of community culture and identity remodeling, which may attract people with childhood years of stay-at-home experience by improving the quality of life of residents, strengthening community ties, and enhancing the attractiveness and expressiveness of the area. Based on this, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper:
H1. 
There is a significant positive effect of physical activity participation on gentrification architecture pursuit for groups with childhood stay-at-home experiences.

2.2. Physical Activity Well-Being, Physical Activity Participation, and Gentrification Architecture Pursuit

The word “happiness” is of Greek origin, which means a subjective feeling that arises when human beings acquire material needs in the material world. Academics generally define happiness as people’s cognitive evaluation of their own life satisfaction [23]. Currently, most researchers generally agree with the concept of happiness proposed by Diener that individuals evaluate the overall quality of their lives according to a standard they set up for themselves, which can be used to describe the sum total of people’s perceptions of their own state of life [24]. The modern definition of happiness is the feeling people have when their thirst is satisfied or partially satisfied, and this mental pleasure is happiness. Physical activity well-being is usually defined as the positive emotional experience and increased life satisfaction gained through physical activity. This sense of well-being stems from the enjoyment, health improvement, social interaction, and satisfaction of achieving personal goals brought about by the physical activity itself. Through physical activity, individuals not only enhance their physical strength and health but also experience a sense of achievement and belonging through group activities and competition, which leads to improved quality of life and well-being. For example, Barak et al. [25] have shown in their study that physical activity can enhance individual well-being by promoting health, enhancing social interactions, and providing a sense of accomplishment, etc. Wu [26] has also emphasized the importance of physical health, psychological satisfaction, and social interactions in physical activity to enhance individual well-being. This shows that participation in physical activity has a positive effect on physical activity well-being.
Physical activity well-being, as a positive affective state, may have important implications for the general public’s pursuit of gentrification architecture. For example, regular participation in sports may improve people’s psychological well-being, including reduced anxiety and depression and increased self-efficacy. Such psychological fulfillment and positive emotions make people more likely to pursue high-quality and aesthetically satisfying lifestyles, including living and working environments. For example, Frey et al. [27] showed in their study that physical activity well-being may promote wider community participation and social cohesion by increasing individual well-being and life satisfaction, which may have a positive impact on community development and building regeneration in gentrified areas. Kim et al. found that social interactions during physical activity can increase residents’ sense of belonging and satisfaction with their neighborhood, which may reduce the community brought about by gentrification exclusion and feelings of fragmentation due to gentrification, thereby reducing the negative impacts of gentrified building development [28].
In identity construction theory, an individual’s self-concept and identity are formed through social interactions and personal experiences, which in turn influence an individual’s behavior and preferences. Thus, physical activity participation is often associated with positive identity traits such as health, vigor, and social status. This may be more consistent with the intrinsic needs of individuals with childhood years of stay-at-home experiences, who experience a positive change in self-perception as they build such positive identities through physical activity, which is usually accompanied by an increased sense of well-being. Physical activity well-being not only enhances individuals’ identification with this positive identity but also motivates them to seek out elements consistent with this identity in other aspects of their lives (e.g., residential and work environments) as a way of reinforcing their social identity and self-worth [29]. Meanwhile, physical activity well-being, as an affective state, can significantly influence individuals’ decision-making and behavioral patterns, and the well-being gained through physical activity can increase individuals’ overall life satisfaction, driving them to seek higher quality and more attractive living environments. This sense of well-being through physical activity leads individuals to choose housing and other living spaces in favor of gentrified buildings that reflect their positive identities, such as homes with modern design, environmental friendliness, and high-end amenities. As Walseth found in his study, physical activity enhances well-being by increasing an individual’s sense of self and social connectedness. This sense of well-being through physical activity can be seen as a motivator for wider community participation, including urban regeneration and gentrification building projects [30]. Based on this, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper:
H2. 
Physical activity well-being mediates the influence of physical activity participation on gentrification architecture pursuit in groups with childhood stay-at-home experiences.

2.3. The Role of Metacognition between Physical Activity Well-Being, Physical Activity Participation and Gentrification Architecture Pursuit

Currently, academic scholars have different definitions of metacognition, with mainstream definitions focusing on disciplines such as pedagogy, neuroscience, and psychology. In pedagogy, for example, Thomas [31] argues that metacognition is an individual’s knowledge, control, and awareness of his or her own thinking and learning processes, emphasizing the central role of metacognition in helping students construct scientific knowledge and understanding. In psychology, Norman et al.’s [32] study stated that metacognition encompasses an individual’s knowledge, control, and monitoring of his or her own cognitive processes and emphasized the importance of metacognition as a cross-cutting concept. In the field of cognitive neuroscience, Fleur et al. [33] argued that metacognition includes the ability to be aware of one’s cognitive processes (metacognitive knowledge) and to regulate them (metacognitive control). Today’s research on metacognition focuses on four main areas: first, the measurement aspect of metacognition. For example, Fleming [34] discusses a variety of metacognition scales based on signal detection theory and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses, which are able to more accurately measure how individuals assess their performance and determinism in a given task and can provide a more objective assessment of metacognition ability by avoiding response bias that is commonly found in traditional methods. Second, the developmental aspects of metacognition. For example, Kuhn [35] examined the developmental trajectory of metacognition from initial awareness in childhood to more sophisticated metacognitive abilities in adulthood. Stel et al. [36] found that metacognitive skills grow quantitatively and qualitatively over time and contribute to academic performance independent of intellectual ability. Third, there are applied aspects of metacognition. Metacognition plays an important role in how we integrate and interpret information from different senses. For example, Rhodes [37] discusses how metacognition skills can be enhanced in the classroom by improving students’ monitoring and adjustment of their own learning process. He argues that good metacognition skills can significantly improve learning outcomes and academic achievement. Fourth, comparative metacognition aspects. This area of research explores metacognition abilities across species and how these abilities influence behavioral strategies. For example, Carruthers et al. [38] criticize the common interpretation of animal behavior as metacognition, arguing that behaviors such as “uncertainty monitoring” may be better explained by first-order risk estimation rather than true metacognition. They argue for a more rigorous attribution of metacognition to nonhuman animals. Based on this, this paper defines metacognition as an individual’s ability to monitor and regulate his or her own cognitive processes, including awareness, assessment, and management of his or her knowledge, thinking, learning, and emotional states.
Identity construction theory emphasizes that an individual’s social identity is formed through self-perception and expression in daily activities and social interactions [39]. In this scenario, sport becomes a key socialization field in which metacognition—the individual’s awareness of his or her own cognitive processes—plays a crucial role. Metacognition enables individuals to gain a deep understanding of their emotions and behaviors in a variety of situations and, in turn, to effectively adjust these emotions and behaviors to the demands of the sport. This process of adjustment through metacognition not only enhances the individual’s control over his or her own abilities but also enhances the individual’s identification of his or her role through the successful experience and happiness of physical activity and promotes the formation of a positive social identity. For individuals who had the experience of being left behind in their childhood, this special upbringing made them hold a different perspective when evaluating the value of the living environment and buildings. Specifically, these individuals learn how to make and maintain social connections through interaction and cooperation in physical activity, not only for the sport itself but also for social and emotional fulfillment they may not have fully experienced in childhood.
The level of metacognition may have increased the importance of the home’s ability to create a stable and cozy family atmosphere for individuals who had the experience of being left behind in their childhood years. For them, the concept of home goes far beyond symbolic structures, and a warm home is a source of emotional connection and security. Therefore, although gentrification buildings symbolize higher social status, for individuals with a stay-at-home background, the extrinsic value of such buildings does not satisfy their intrinsic need for family and emotional connection. They are more inclined to look for living environments that support and promote interaction and emotional communication among family members rather than simply pursuing expensive or status-symbolizing residential buildings. Based on this, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper (the specific proposed model for this paper is shown in Figure 3):
H3. 
Metacognition plays a negative moderating role in the influence of physical activity participation and physical activity well-being on gentrification architecture pursuit in groups with childhood stay-at-home experiences.

3. Study Design

3.1. Research Methodology

This paper adopts the method of convenience sampling to select the social masses in Xi’an City, Shaanxi Province, China, for testing; a total of 550 questionnaires were distributed, 519 questionnaires were retrieved, and 481 valid questionnaires were obtained after invalid questionnaires were excluded, with an effective recovery rate of 92.68%. Among them, there are 230 males and 251 females, which is a balanced ratio between males and females (Table 1); a total of 377 have left-behind experience, and 104 do not have left-behind experiences. (According to the definition of left-behind children, minors who are left behind in the place of domicile by both or one of their parents going out to work for more than 6 months and who are not able to live with both parents are classified as left-behind children and non-left-behind children as a criterion, which is the criterion of this paper). (This paper uses this criterion to divide the sample into two parts: those with left-behind experience and those without).

3.2. Measurement of Variables

In this paper, physical activity participation is measured using the SCL-6 and PARS-3 scales [40], which are established tools in Chinese physical education and psychology. These scales have been widely applied and tested in various studies, demonstrating good reliability and validity. Numerous Chinese academic studies use these scales as benchmarks, confirming their authority, credibility, and effectiveness. We extracted the core elements—intensity, duration, and frequency of physical activity—from these scales, integrating them with the characteristics of the research subjects to form a 3-item scale. An example item is, “How do you think about the intensity of your physical activity?”. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is 0.842, exceeding the 0.7 standard.
The measurement of physical activity well-being is based on Diener’s [41] 1985 scale, combined with Koufaris’s [42] research, incorporating the sports element. This results in a 4-item scale, such as “Having physical activities in life is in line with my ideal life”. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is 0.89, surpassing the 0.7 standard.
For measuring the pursuit of gentrification architecture, this paper integrates concepts from Sherman [43], Zukin [2], and Butler [44] to design a 3-item scale, including items like, “Do you believe that a building’s exterior appearance and environmental quality correlate with social status and cultural tastes?” The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is 0.915, above the 0.7 standard.
Metacognition measurement is derived from the MAI scale by Schraw [45], excluding the emphasis on the learning process, resulting in a 5-item scale. An example item is, “When solving a problem, I will think about the validity of my own thinking process”. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is 0.845, which is greater than the 0.7 standard.
This paper uses a Likert 5-point scale, ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”, with higher scores indicating more pronounced characteristics of a variable. (See Appendix A. Questionnaire)

4. Findings

4.1. Common Method Bias Test

The use of self-reporting for data collection may lead to common methodological bias, and to avoid this possible bias, the present study controlled for it by using questionnaires that were organized separately and emphasizing anonymity. Meanwhile, principal component factor analysis of all items using Harman’s one-way test showed that there were four factors with eigenvalues greater than one, and the factor with the highest explained variance was 38.058%, which is less than the critical criterion of 40%, which indicates that the data obtained do not suffer from the problem of common method bias in any significant way.

4.2. Mean, Standard Deviation, and Correlation Matrix for Each Variable

Table 2 shows the means and variances of physical activity participation levels, physical activity well-being, gentrification architecture pursuit, and metacognition of subjects with different types of childhood left-behind experiences and subjects without childhood left-behind experiences. Considering that the main purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between physical activity participation, physical activity well-being, gentrified architectural pursuits, and metacognition in people with childhood left-behind experience, the data from people with childhood left-behind experience were chosen for all the analyses after this section. Table 3 shows the correlation matrix between the variables, and the results show that there is no significant correlation between the level of gentrification architecture pursuit and none of the demographic variables in the group with childhood left-behind experience, and there is a significant positive correlation between physical activity participation, physical activity well-being, and gentrification architecture pursuit, but there is a significant negative correlation between metacognition and all of the first three variables.

4.3. Moderated Mediation Model Test

In this paper, we follow the mediated effects analysis procedure proposed by Zhao et al. [46] and use Model 15 in the SPSS macro program PROCESS 4.0, developed by Hayes [47], to process the data and test the posterior and direct paths of the mediated model with moderation. We controlled for gender, household type, age of type left behind, and income as covariates. As shown in Table 4 and Table 5, Bootstrap analysis showed that the mediating role of physical activity well-being and the moderating role of metacognition was established, and hypotheses H1, H2, and H3 in the pre-post of this paper were established.
Specifically, in the mediation model with physical activity participation as the independent variable, physical activity well-being as the mediator variable, and gentrification architecture pursuit as the dependent variable, physical activity participation was able to significantly and positively predict gentrification architecture pursuit, with a significant direct effect (p < 0.001) and a significant total effect (p < 0.001). The confidence interval of physical activity well-being as a mediating variable did not contain 0, and the confidence interval of physical activity well-being as a mediating variable did not contain 0 after the introduction of the moderating variable metacognition, indicating that the mediating effect of physical activity well-being on physical activity participation and gentrification architecture pursuits was significant when only physical activity well-being was used as a mediating variable (p < 0.001). Meanwhile, when physical activity well-being was the mediating variable, and metacognition was the moderating variable, the mediating effect of physical activity well-being on physical activity participation in gentrification architecture pursuit was also significant (p < 0.001), with a relative effect value of 44.2%.
In addition, the interaction term between physical activity well-being and metacognition was a significant negative predictor of gentrification architecture pursuit (p = 0.007 < 0.05), and the interaction term of metacognition of physical activity participation was also a significant negative predictor of gentrification architecture pursuit (p = 0.002 < 0.05). This result suggests that metacognition plays a moderating role in the effect of physical activity well-being on gentrification architecture pursuit, moderating the second half of the path of the mediation model; at the same time, metacognition also plays a moderating role in the effect of physical activity participation on the direct path of gentrification architecture pursuit.
In order to further analyze the trend of the moderating effect of metacognition, metacognition was divided into two groups of high and low according to one standard deviation of positive and negative, and the simple slope test was used to examine the moderating effect of metacognition between physical activity well-being and gentrification architecture pursuit. As shown in Figure 4, when the level of metacognition was low, the positive predictive effect of physical activity well-being on gentrification architecture pursuit was higher in the group with childhood left-behind experience (p < 0.001); when the level of metacognition was high, the physical activity well-being of the group with childhood left-behind experience was the existence of a lower positive predictive effect on gentrification architecture pursuit (p = 0.005 < 0.05). That is, higher metacognition can attenuate the driving effect of physical activity well-being on gentrification architecture pursuit.
Similarly, metacognition was divided into high and low groups by plus or minus one standard deviation, and a simple slope test was used to examine the moderating effect of metacognition between physical activity participation and gentrification architecture pursuit. As shown in Figure 5, when the level of metacognition is low, the positive predictive effect of physical activity participation of the group with childhood left-behind experience on gentrification architecture pursuit is stronger (p < 0.001); when the level of metacognition is high, the physical activity participation of the group with childhood left-behind experience, however, does not have a significant positive predictive effect on gentrification architecture pursuit (p = 0.168 > 0.05). That is, higher metacognition can attenuate the driving effect of physical activity participation and gentrification architecture pursuit.

5. Analysis and Discussion

This paper explores the relationship between childhood left-behind experiences and physical activity participation with gentrification architecture pursuit and its possible underlying mechanisms. The results show that the level of physical activity participation of individuals with childhood left-behind experiences positively predicts their gentrification architecture pursuits, i.e., the more actively involved in physical activity an individual affected by left-behind experiences is, the higher the degree of his/her gentrification architecture pursuits will be. In addition, this paper also found the mediating role of physical activity well-being, i.e., physical activity participation can have an indirect effect on gentrification architecture pursuit through physical activity well-being, which is manifested in the fact that the higher the frequency of physical activity participation of individuals affected by the left-behind experience in childhood, the stronger the well-being experienced by their participation in physical activity, and the higher the level of their pursuit of gentrification architecture. Further analysis revealed that metacognition plays a moderating role in the path of physical activity well-being in predicting consumers’ gentrification architecture pursuits, i.e., when individuals with childhood left-behind experiences have higher levels of metacognition, their level of gentrification architecture pursuits (compared to lower levels of metacognition) is limited, even though their physical activity participation experiences more well-being. In addition, the metacognition ability of individuals with childhood left-behind experiences significantly and negatively predicts their gentrification architecture pursuit when the level of sport participation is low, i.e., the better the metacognition ability, the lower the level of gentrification architecture pursuit for individuals with left-behind experiences who have a lower level of sport participation.
The impact of the left-behind experience on individuals is not only in terms of participation in sports but also in terms of their subsequent development and consumer attitudes; Wen et al. [48] compared the psychological, behavioral, and educational outcomes of left-behind and non-left-behind children and found that the left-behind children were at a disadvantage in terms of health behaviors and school participation. It is clear that childhood is an important time in an individual’s development and that the experience of being left behind has an impact on all aspects of their subsequent development. Belk et al. [49] showed that elementary school is a critical time for children to acquire most of the skills of consumer decoding, which involves recognizing the symbolic meanings of consumer goods, such as cars and houses. The lack of access to the Internet is a major factor in the development of children who have been left behind. Individuals who have been left behind are more likely to feel lonely due to the lack of communication with their parents, which may lead to a change in their consumption attitudes compared to those with parents, i.e., because of the absence of one or both parents during childhood, they may place more emphasis on the symbolic aspects of consumption (e.g., gentrification and architectural pursuits), and have a greater need to seek acceptance in the community.

5.1. The Direct Role of Physical Activity Participation and the Mediating Role of Physical Activity Well-Being

This paper finds that the level of physical activity participation of individuals with childhood left-behind experiences is an important predictor of individual gentrification architecture pursuit, which is more consistent with the findings of previous scholars’ related studies [50]. More importantly, this paper also finds that the level of physical activity participation of individuals with childhood left-behind experience will enhance their gentrification architecture pursuit psychology through physical activity well-being. Physical activity participation is not only a form of entertainment but also an expression of cultural symbols and social identity. During childhood, left-behind individuals may lack family companionship and cozy family cultural inheritance, but through physical activity participation provides them with an ideal social platform to build close relationships with others, bringing physical and mental pleasure while also integrating into an emerging circle of people sought after by the mainstream culture of the society and establishing a new social identity. Physical activity participation is often promoted by the mass media as a positive image and is generally understood and recognized by the social crowd. This recognition and respect will inspire them to pursue a higher quality of life, including the pursuit of gentrification architecture [51].
Physical activity participation is not only a physical activity but also a kind of psychological exercise and healing. Individuals who lack family companionship in childhood can obtain a sense of security and warmth through sports activities, which can “replace” companionship. For example, the sense of achievement, cooperation, and body shaping gained from sports activities will significantly increase the individual’s self-confidence and sense of well-being. Physical activity and well-being are not only a direct result of sports participation but also inspire individuals to aspire to a better quality of life [52]. According to the theory of identity construction, an individual’s identity is gradually formed and constructed through social interactions and personal experiences; therefore, the sense of well-being gained through sports activities enhances an individual’s satisfaction with life and the pursuit of a high quality of life, which in turn influences the pursuit of gentrification architecture pursuit. From another perspective, the enhancement of physical activity well-being reflects individuals’ concern and pursuit of good living habits and physical and mental health. The gentrification building communities often provide better living environments and community facilities, such as high greening rates, excellent comprehensive quality of residents, and perfect sports supporting facilities, which are conducive to individuals’ physical and mental health and quality of life.
Identity construction theory emphasizes that individuals construct their identities through the realization of self-worth and the pursuit of personal achievement [53]. Individuals with stay-at-home experiences may have experienced certain challenges and dilemmas growing up yet gained self-actualization and a sense of accomplishment through physical activity participation. High-end neighborhood properties are often seen as symbols of success and social status, and living in such an environment naturally enhances an individual’s sense of identity and social status in the eyes of others [54]. Individuals with the experience of being left behind in childhood may have gained a certain sense of achievement through sports activities but still feel a certain degree of identity uncertainty and identity dilemma at the psychological level of social interaction. Gentrification architecture is not only a material enjoyment but also a symbol and pursuit of a better life. This pursuit not only comes from material fulfillment but is also a response to the deepest longing of the heart. Therefore, they are more inclined to demonstrate their success and status by pursuing properties in gentrified neighborhoods in order to gain social recognition and respect.

5.2. The Moderating Role of Metacognition

Interestingly, the results of the empirical analysis in this paper identified the conditional variable, metacognition, that can limit to some extent the impact of physical activity well-being on gentrification architecture pursuit in individuals with childhood stay-at-home experiences. Individuals with higher levels of metacognition may be better at goal setting, self-construction, and self-monitoring, more focused on internal growth and self-actualization, more likely to think and plan rationally for their own development, more focused on long-term goals and resource allocation, and more attentive to the trade-off between intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction [55]. These abilities cultivate a higher degree of psychological resilience, enabling individuals to cope more effectively with the negative impacts of childhood experiences of being left behind, to break through the dilemmas brought about by childhood experiences of being left behind, and to seek opportunities for growth and development from them. If they seek active and healthy habits, such as cultivating interest in sports and increasing their level of physical activity participation, they will participate in physical activities more consciously, and individuals with a high level of metacognition may be more adept at monitoring their emotions and behaviors, and be able to cope with challenges by regulating their attention and emotions. This ability to self-regulate contributes to better enjoyment of the exercise process during physical activity, leading to increased physical activity well-being and a greater ability to enjoy the well-being brought about by the exercise proces.
Specifically, because individuals with high levels of metacognition focus on the rational allocation of their various resources, they weigh their options more carefully and cautiously consider where investing their resources will maximize their long-term personal interests and goals [56]. Therefore, even if they feel physically and mentally enriched by physical activity participation or have an increased sense of well-being brought about by physical activity, they are more likely to believe that instead of investing their resources in the pursuit of external material enjoyment such as high-end gentrified properties, they would be better off using their resources in other more important aspects, such as education, and thus pursue gentrification architecture pursuits to a relatively low degree. Because metacognition aids individuals to continuously overcome the effects of childhood left-behind experiences, gain more security and fulfillment, and enhance positive mindfulness and self-affirmation of life, they are more concerned with long-term personal development and goal attainment than short-term pleasure experiences [57]. Identity construction theory emphasizes that individuals with clear self-knowledge are more able to clearly understand the relationship between themselves and their social environment and more rationally deal with the social identity and identity brought by external material symbols [58]. Even though the experience of being left behind in childhood may have prompted individuals to face the challenges and responsibilities of adult life at an earlier age and experience identity troubles and struggles, even though the sense of achievement from physical activity participation and the sense of well-being from physical activity have increased, they are likely to pay more attention to their personal values and long-term goals, and will not pursue external material symbols such as high-end real estate excessively because they know better that it cannot truly satisfy their inner needs. Individuals with high levels of metacognition may be more inclined to internal self-worth and personal growth and less reliant on external material symbols, including gentrification architecture pursuits such as real estate.

6. Limitations and Future Research

This paper empirically explored the mechanism of the influence of individual sports participation levels of childhood left-behind experiences on their gentrification architecture pursuit, but there are still some shortcomings: first, this paper uses a convenience sampling method to find subjects to distribute and fill out the questionnaire, in which it must be considered that there may have been a very small number of subjects who do not fill out the questionnaire seriously due to subjective reasons, which resulted in the situation of bias; moreover, the sample in this paper was limited to the same region, and the social, economic, cultural, and environmental characteristics of a single geographic region may be so unique that they may not be replicated in other regions. Policies and institutions may vary greatly from region to region, and these differences can have a significant impact on the behaviors and attitudes of the subjects of this study. Therefore, a combination of different research methods can be used in future studies to broaden the scope of subjects and continuously improve the representativeness of the sample and the external validity of the study. Future studies can also increase the study area to enhance the reliability and validity of the findings by comparing and contrasting data from different regions. In addition, they can also provide detailed research instructions and methods, including sample selection criteria, data collection processes, and analysis methods. It is also beneficial to conduct a long follow-up study to observe the changes and trends of the variables in different geographic regions, to verify the continuity and stability of the study results, and ultimately to ensure the replicability of this study in other geographic settings.
Secondly, this paper only explored the influence of the experience of being left behind in childhood on individual gentrification architecture pursuit and does not differentiate the types of being left behind in detail, such as only the father working outside the home, only the mother working outside the home, and both parents working outside the home. In future research, we can construct a multicluster structural equation model according to the different types being left behind to analyze the specific links between individual variables further and find more valuable points from the comparison of the paths. Finally, gentrification architecture pursuit is affected by a variety of factors, and this study only explored the relationship between physical activity participation, physical activity well-being, metacognition, and gentrification architecture pursuit of individuals with childhood left-behind experiences, in addition to which there are other variables that have an impact on gentrification architecture pursuit, such as upward social comparison, mental toughness, and so on. Therefore, future research can consider more realities, combine them with richer literature, and examine and study the inherent mechanism of action and the relationship between variables from multiple perspectives and in multiple fields.

Author Contributions

Methodology, Y.H., S.C. and Z.Y.; Software, Y.H., S.C., Y.Z., Z.Y. and T.Z.; Validation, Y.Z.; Formal analysis, Y.H., S.C. and Y.Z.; Investigation, S.C.; Resources, Y.H.; Data curation, S.C., Y.Z., Z.Y. and T.Z.; Writing—original draft, Y.H., S.C., Y.Z. and Z.Y.; Writing—review & editing, S.C., Y.Z. and Z.Y.; Visualization, S.C., Y.Z., Z.Y. and Q.H.; Supervision, Z.Y.; Project administration, T.Z.; Funding acquisition, S.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A. Questionnaire

VariantSubjectScore
Physical activity participationWhat are your daily hours of physical activity?1. 10 min and below 2. 11–20 min 3. 21–30 min 4. 31–59 min 5. 60 min and above
How intense do you consider your physical activity to be?1. light 2. light intensity 3. medium intensity 4. medium-high intensity 5. high intensity
How frequent is your physical activity participation?1. less than once a month 2. 2–3 times a month 3. 1–2 times a week 4. 3–5 times a week 5. almost every day
Physical Activity Well-BeingPhysical activity participation gives me a greater sense of purpose in life.1. strongly disagree 2. somewhat disagree 3. generally 4. somewhat agree 5. strongly agree
Sports are something I love and I tend to get into them1. strongly disagree 2. somewhat disagree 3. generally 4. somewhat agree 5. strongly agree
Having sports in my life matches my ideal life.1. strongly disagree 2. somewhat disagree 3. generally 4. somewhat agree 5. strongly agree
Physical activity participation relaxes me.1. strongly disagree 2. somewhat disagree 3. generally 4. somewhat agree 5. strongly agree
Gentrification Architecture PursuitDo you believe that the appearance of buildings and the quality of the environment correlate with social status and cultural tastes?1. strongly disagree 2. somewhat disagree 3. generally 4. somewhat agree 5. strongly agree
Do you think owning a gentleman’s property will enhance your personal image?1. strongly disagree 2. somewhat disagree 3. generally 4. somewhat agree 5. strongly agree
Even if it’s expensive, I’m still willing to buy gentrified real estate.1. strongly disagree 2. somewhat disagree 3. generally 4. somewhat agree 5. strongly agree
MetacognitionWhen solving problems, I think about the validity of my thought process1. strongly disagree 2. somewhat disagree 3. generally 4. somewhat agree 5. strongly agree
When I solve problems, I am able to be aware of my thought process1. strongly disagree 2. somewhat disagree 3. generally 4. somewhat agree 5. strongly agree
I am able to perceive myself correctly in my daily life1. strongly disagree 2. somewhat disagree 3. generally 4. somewhat agree 5. strongly agree
I’ll be strict with myself to improve my focus and quality of life.1. strongly disagree 2. somewhat disagree 3. generally 4. somewhat agree 5. strongly agree
I will continue to self-reflect and self-adjust myself to have a good physical and mental condition1. strongly disagree 2. somewhat disagree 3. generally 4. somewhat agree 5. strongly agree

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Buildings 14 02367 g001
Figure 1. Illustrative map of land cover in Xi’an, China.
Figure 1. Illustrative map of land cover in Xi’an, China.
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Figure 2. Illustrative map of building changes in Xi’an, China.
Figure 2. Illustrative map of building changes in Xi’an, China.
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Figure 3. Proposed model diagram.
Figure 3. Proposed model diagram.
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Figure 4. Diagram of negative moderating effects of metacognition.
Figure 4. Diagram of negative moderating effects of metacognition.
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Figure 5. Negative moderating effects of metacognition.
Figure 5. Negative moderating effects of metacognition.
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Table 1. Descriptive analysis of basic information of the sample.
Table 1. Descriptive analysis of basic information of the sample.
CausalityFormQuorumPercentage
SexMale23047.8
Female25152.2
Account typeMunicipalities18338
Countryside29862
Type of retentionNo experience of being left behind10421.6
Only the mother works outside the home13928.9
Only the father works outside the home10321.4
Both parents work outside the home13528.1
Age18–25 years20642.8
26–35 years13628.3
36–45 years9920.6
45 years and over408.3
IncomesLess than 5000 yuan11824.5
5001–10,000 yuan22145.9
10,001–15,000 yuan10321.4
15,000 yuan or more398.1
Table 2. Scores for each variable in each childhood type of retention scenario.
Table 2. Scores for each variable in each childhood type of retention scenario.
Whether or Not to StayRemaining SituationNPAPWBPAMCPGA
MSDMSDMSDMSD
NoNo experience of being left behind1043.6891.1293.6780.9913.6390.9063.6630.901
YesChildhood with only mother working outside the home1393.6791.0543.6460.9883.7760.8043.4660.914
YesChildhood with only father working outside the home1033.6181.1133.5221.0633.5150.9563.6350.911
YesBoth parents worked as children1353.8690.8733.6561.0043.4700.9043.6770.849
Table 3. Means, standard deviations, and correlation matrices for each variable for the group with experience of staying behind during childhood (N = 377).
Table 3. Means, standard deviations, and correlation matrices for each variable for the group with experience of staying behind during childhood (N = 377).
MSDSexPopulationResidualAgeIncomesPAPWBPAPGAMC
Sex1.5280.5001
population1.6150.4870.0711
residual2.9890.8540.032−0.0031
Age2.9310.981−0.056−0.061−0.0261
incomes2.1250.849−0.087−0.038−0.0350.11
PAP3.7301.013−0.0230.0250.080.0680.0021
WBPA3.6151.014−0.0330.0320.0040.053−0.0270.506 **1
PGA3.7521.0710.0060.0270.0090.08−0.0060.472 **0.545 **1
MC3.5950.8920.084−0.048−0.147 **0.020.014−0.153 **−0.192 **−0.0342 **1
Note: ** p < 0.01.
Table 4. Moderated mediation effects model tests with moderation.
Table 4. Moderated mediation effects model tests with moderation.
WBPAPGAPGA
tLLCIULCICoefftLLCIULCICoefftLLCIULCI
Sex−0.047−0.511−0.2270.1330.0580.645−0.120.2370.1091.361−0.0490.267
Population0.0440.475−0.140.2280.0180.19−0.1650.20.0010.007−0.1610.162
Residual−0.043−0.809−0.1480.062−0.017−0.317−0.1210.087−0.074−1.571−0.1670.019
Age0.0220.475−0.070.1140.0450.977−0.0460.1360.0511.246−0.0290.131
incomes−0.039−0.718−0.1450.0670.0030.064−0.1020.108−0.01−0.212−0.1030.083
PAP0.50611.24 ***0.4180.5950.2785.373 ***0.1760.3790.2444.724 ***0.1420.345
WBPA 0.4348.427 ***0.3330.5350.326.209 ***0.2190.421
MC −0.342−7.06 ***−0.438−0.247
Int_1 −0.185−3.132 **−0.301−0.069
Int_2 −0.166−2.721 **−0.286−0.046
R20.2590.3510.499
F21.584 ***28.523 ***36.395 ***
Note: ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.
Table 5. Mediation effects tests with Moderation.
Table 5. Mediation effects tests with Moderation.
TrailsEffect (Scientific Phenomenon)EffectSE95% CIPercentage of Total Effect
LLCIULCI
PAP-PGAaggregate effect0.4980.0490.4020.593
PAP-PGAdirect effect0.2780.0520.1760.379
PAP-WBPA-PGAindirect effect0.220.0370.1490.29744.2%
PAP-PGAMC low0.4090.0880.2370.581
MC High0.0780.057−0.0330.19
WBPA-PGAMC low0.4680.0870.2970.638
MC High0.1720.0610.0520.292
PAP-WBPA-PGAMC low0.2370.0530.1460.351
MC High0.0870.0430.0020.171
Index−0.0840.036−0.163−0.02
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Hou, Y.; Chen, S.; Yao, Z.; Zhang, Y.; Huang, Q.; Zhang, T. Exploring Gentrification Architecture Pursuit in Individuals with Childhood Left-behind Experiences—Empirical Analysis Based on the Perspective of Sports Participation. Buildings 2024, 14, 2367. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082367

AMA Style

Hou Y, Chen S, Yao Z, Zhang Y, Huang Q, Zhang T. Exploring Gentrification Architecture Pursuit in Individuals with Childhood Left-behind Experiences—Empirical Analysis Based on the Perspective of Sports Participation. Buildings. 2024; 14(8):2367. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082367

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Hou, Yuyang, Sen Chen, Zhenning Yao, Yujie Zhang, Qian Huang, and Tianyi Zhang. 2024. "Exploring Gentrification Architecture Pursuit in Individuals with Childhood Left-behind Experiences—Empirical Analysis Based on the Perspective of Sports Participation" Buildings 14, no. 8: 2367. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082367

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